1861_ The Civil War Awakening Part 8

The total number of books published on the Civil War since 1861 roughly equals the total number of soldiers-both Union and Confederate-who fought the First Battle of Bull Run. Sending my own off into that fray, I have of course benefited enormously from the work of those who went before, including trailblazing research during the past two decades that has done much to open new fields of inquiry and correct past imbalances.

Surprisingly, there are still some topics that remain too little explored, such as the presidential campaigns of 1860 (especially the Wide Awake phenomenon); the transcontinental telegraph; the distinctive roles of Germans and other white ethnic groups; and the story of the contrabands at Fortress Monroe and elsewhere during the opening year of the war.

s.p.a.ce does not permit a full listing of every source that I drew upon; the bibliographical essay below touches on a few highlights for each chapter, especially the secondary sources. A much more complete bibliography can be found on the website for this book, www.1861book.com.

The Civil War era is, of course, also incredibly rich in visual images. The technology of the printed page cannot do full justice to the astonis.h.i.+ng detail captured in a gla.s.s-plate photograph, but that of the Internet can: zooming in bit by bit is like entering the vanished moment itself. High-resolution versions of the photographs in this book are available on my website. Readers will also find there the full texts of poems quoted as epigraphs.

In referring to African-Americans, I have used the terms "Negro" and "colored," in keeping with the usage of the time. Unfortunately, giving a full sense of the period also compels the historian to quote racist rhetoric that is often quite ugly. But this was so much a part of the political culture of the Civil War era, in both North and South, that it cannot and should not be avoided. In providing verbal quotations from African-Americans themselves as reported by whites, I have, reluctantly, preserved the "dialect" versions used in almost all the original sources, even though some of the conventional spellings (e.g., "wuz" for "was") served no conceivable phonetic purpose, and were as characteristic of Southern whites' speech as of blacks'. Trying to correct this would have required bowdlerizing the original sources, and I believe that the voices of the original speakers ring through eloquently despite the white writers' reflexive habits of belittlement.

Period newspapers are essential sources for the Civil War era, but must be used with caution, since objectivity was an alien concept in the 1860s, and most editors cared more about providing sensational coverage than about being accurate. (For example, many Northern papers originally described the disasters at Big Bethel and Bull Run as magnificent Union victories.) On the other hand, the concept of eyewitness journalism was just coming into its own, and when a reporter was actually on the scene, he often recounted details quite vividly and usually with reasonable accuracy. Even "second-tier" papers such as the Cincinnati Daily Commercial Cincinnati Daily Commercial and the and the Philadelphia Press Philadelphia Press often provide a surprising amount of valuable firsthand reporting by those papers' national correspondents. often provide a surprising amount of valuable firsthand reporting by those papers' national correspondents.

It is considerably more difficult to hear the voices of ordinary Americans from the months that this book covers than from later in the war. Eventually, of course, the long struggle would generate a tremendous outpouring of letters and diaries written by enlisted men and their families back home, papers that (unlike most routine correspondence during peacetime) would be treasured and preserved by them and their descendants. But there were simply far fewer soldiers in the early months of 1861, and even those who did serve were perhaps less likely to send as many letters, since most were on three-month enlistments and believed they would soon be home to recount their experiences in person. Perhaps, too, families were less likely to preserve the soldiers' letters than they would be later, once it became clear to everyone that the war was going to be both a long struggle and an epochal event in the nation's history. So far, I have been able to locate only two letters from an enlisted man at Fort Sumter during the siege. There are very few surviving letters or diaries of African-Americans from this period.

General Sources James M. McPherson's Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (Oxford University Press, 1988) has been justly hailed as the best contemporary one-volume history of the war. I would go further and call it the best one-volume history of the conflict ever written: it is astonis.h.i.+ng how much narrative detail, period color, subtle a.n.a.lysis, and topical breadth the author is able to fit into a single (admittedly thick but never ponderous) book. Older accounts continue to provide fresh insights and are written with an elegance and wit, a sense of irony and a subtle appreciation of the complex (often contradictory) nature of the past, that are too rarely found in recent scholars.h.i.+p. Allan Nevins's eight-volume (Oxford University Press, 1988) has been justly hailed as the best contemporary one-volume history of the war. I would go further and call it the best one-volume history of the conflict ever written: it is astonis.h.i.+ng how much narrative detail, period color, subtle a.n.a.lysis, and topical breadth the author is able to fit into a single (admittedly thick but never ponderous) book. Older accounts continue to provide fresh insights and are written with an elegance and wit, a sense of irony and a subtle appreciation of the complex (often contradictory) nature of the past, that are too rarely found in recent scholars.h.i.+p. Allan Nevins's eight-volume The Ordeal of the Union The Ordeal of the Union (New York: Scribner, 194771) remains a monument of American historiography. Bruce Catton has gone somewhat into eclipse in recent decades, but his books-especially, for the purposes of my own work, (New York: Scribner, 194771) remains a monument of American historiography. Bruce Catton has gone somewhat into eclipse in recent decades, but his books-especially, for the purposes of my own work, The Coming Fury The Coming Fury (New York: Doubleday, 1961)-are inspiring examples of how an author can write history as literature without sacrificing accuracy. (New York: Doubleday, 1961)-are inspiring examples of how an author can write history as literature without sacrificing accuracy.

Russell McClintock's Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession (University of North Carolina Press, 2008) is an invaluable recent addition to the historiography, meticulously reconstructing the events leading up to the fall of Sumter and ill.u.s.trating the relations.h.i.+p between Northern public opinion and the inner councils of the Lincoln administration. (University of North Carolina Press, 2008) is an invaluable recent addition to the historiography, meticulously reconstructing the events leading up to the fall of Sumter and ill.u.s.trating the relations.h.i.+p between Northern public opinion and the inner councils of the Lincoln administration.

The compendious collection published by the War Department, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 18801901) is an indispensable resource for anyone studying almost any aspect of the conflict. (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 18801901) is an indispensable resource for anyone studying almost any aspect of the conflict.

Michael Burlingame has done more than perhaps any other single scholar to a.s.semble exhaustive information about Abraham Lincoln's life and presidency-in the process also casting light into many other corners of nineteenth-century America. His two-volume Abraham Lincoln: A Life Abraham Lincoln: A Life (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008) is a true gold mine, and Burlingame has further earned the grat.i.tude of researchers and readers by posting an unabridged version of the already almost two-thousand-page biography (including his full footnotes) on the website of Knox College's Lincoln Studies Center. (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008) is a true gold mine, and Burlingame has further earned the grat.i.tude of researchers and readers by posting an unabridged version of the already almost two-thousand-page biography (including his full footnotes) on the website of Knox College's Lincoln Studies Center.

Philip Paludan's A People's Contest: The Union and Civil War, 18611865 A People's Contest: The Union and Civil War, 18611865 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988) is a revealing account of how the Civil War transformed the ident.i.ty and society of the North. Scott Reynolds Nelson and Carol Sheriff's (New York: Harper & Row, 1988) is a revealing account of how the Civil War transformed the ident.i.ty and society of the North. Scott Reynolds Nelson and Carol Sheriff's A People at War: Civilians and Soldiers in America's Civil War A People at War: Civilians and Soldiers in America's Civil War (Oxford University Press, 2007) lucidly portrays the various roles of ordinary American men and women. George M. Frederickson's (Oxford University Press, 2007) lucidly portrays the various roles of ordinary American men and women. George M. Frederickson's The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York: Harper & Row, 1965) remains one of the most thoughtful and subtle treatments of American intellectual life in the Civil War era, and of the complicated relations.h.i.+ps among poetry, philosophy, and politics. (New York: Harper & Row, 1965) remains one of the most thoughtful and subtle treatments of American intellectual life in the Civil War era, and of the complicated relations.h.i.+ps among poetry, philosophy, and politics.

Prologue: A Banner at Daybreak Two of the Union officers besieged at Fort Sumter during the winter of 186061 left vivid accounts of their experience. Samuel Wylie Crawford's The History of the Fall of Fort Sumter The History of the Fall of Fort Sumter (New York: C. L. Webster & Co, 1887) not only recounts the events in Charleston Harbor but also puts them in their larger political context, based on information he diligently gathered after the war from both Northern and Southern partic.i.p.ants. Crawford's letters and diary in the Library of Congress provide even more detail. Abner Doubleday's (New York: C. L. Webster & Co, 1887) not only recounts the events in Charleston Harbor but also puts them in their larger political context, based on information he diligently gathered after the war from both Northern and Southern partic.i.p.ants. Crawford's letters and diary in the Library of Congress provide even more detail. Abner Doubleday's Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860'61 Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860'61 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876) is another valuable source, colored somewhat by the author's own cantankerous personality; it provides the fullest description of the move from Moultrie to Sumter. The first volume of (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876) is another valuable source, colored somewhat by the author's own cantankerous personality; it provides the fullest description of the move from Moultrie to Sumter. The first volume of Battles and Leaders of the Civil War Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (New York: The Century Company, 1887) contains other, briefer, eyewitness accounts. The Robert Anderson Papers in the Library of Congress offer many clues to the enigmatic commander's experience at Sumter, as well as his earlier career, including fan letters, poems, and testimonials that he received from Northerners (and a few Southerners) during the siege. (New York: The Century Company, 1887) contains other, briefer, eyewitness accounts. The Robert Anderson Papers in the Library of Congress offer many clues to the enigmatic commander's experience at Sumter, as well as his earlier career, including fan letters, poems, and testimonials that he received from Northerners (and a few Southerners) during the siege.

The story of the Sumter crisis has been narrated many times by later historians. Among the best and most authoritative accounts, Maury Klein's Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997) is notable for its richness of detail and deft interweaving of events in Was.h.i.+ngton and Charleston. David Detzer's (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997) is notable for its richness of detail and deft interweaving of events in Was.h.i.+ngton and Charleston. David Detzer's Allegiance: Fort Sumter, Charleston, and the Beginning of the Civil War Allegiance: Fort Sumter, Charleston, and the Beginning of the Civil War (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001), a fast-paced narrative, provides especially rich portraits of the various partic.i.p.ants in the Sumter standoff. W. A. Swanberg's (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001), a fast-paced narrative, provides especially rich portraits of the various partic.i.p.ants in the Sumter standoff. W. A. Swanberg's First Blood: The Story of Fort Sumter First Blood: The Story of Fort Sumter (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1957) offers another well-researched account. Nelson D. Lankford's (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1957) offers another well-researched account. Nelson D. Lankford's Cry Havoc! The Crooked Road to the Civil War, 1861 Cry Havoc! The Crooked Road to the Civil War, 1861 (New York: Viking, 2007) is especially strong in its treatment of the political struggles in the border states during the secession crisis. (New York: Viking, 2007) is especially strong in its treatment of the political struggles in the border states during the secession crisis.

For the changing meanings of the American flag, see especially Mark E. Neely and Harold Holzer's The Union Image: Popular Prints of the Civil War North The Union Image: Popular Prints of the Civil War North (University of North Carolina Press, 2000), as well as Scot M. Guenter's (University of North Carolina Press, 2000), as well as Scot M. Guenter's The American Flag, 17771924: Cultural s.h.i.+fts from Creation to Codification The American Flag, 17771924: Cultural s.h.i.+fts from Creation to Codification (Fairleigh d.i.c.kinson University Press, 1990) and Michael Corcoran's (Fairleigh d.i.c.kinson University Press, 1990) and Michael Corcoran's For Which It Stands: An Anecdotal Biography of the American Flag For Which It Stands: An Anecdotal Biography of the American Flag (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002). (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002).

Chapter One: Wide Awake.

For Ralph Farnham, see C. W. Clarence, A Biographical Sketch of the Life of Ralph Farnham, of Acton, Maine, Now in the One Hundred and Fifth Year of His Age, and the Sole Survivor of the Glorious Battle of Bunker Hill A Biographical Sketch of the Life of Ralph Farnham, of Acton, Maine, Now in the One Hundred and Fifth Year of His Age, and the Sole Survivor of the Glorious Battle of Bunker Hill (Boston, 1860); as well as contemporary newspaper accounts. George B. Forgie's (Boston, 1860); as well as contemporary newspaper accounts. George B. Forgie's Patricide in the House Divided: A Psychological Interpretation of Lincoln and His Age Patricide in the House Divided: A Psychological Interpretation of Lincoln and His Age (New York, W. W. Norton, 1979) is a provocative and important book that has unfortunately fallen somewhat out of favor; it offers an ingenious interpretation of the complicated feelings that the Civil War generation bore toward its antebellum parents and Revolutionary grandparents. (New York, W. W. Norton, 1979) is a provocative and important book that has unfortunately fallen somewhat out of favor; it offers an ingenious interpretation of the complicated feelings that the Civil War generation bore toward its antebellum parents and Revolutionary grandparents.

A magisterial survey of America's transformation during the first half of the nineteenth century (although it stops a dozen years before the story in this book begins) is Daniel Walker Howe's Pulitzer Prizewinning What Hath G.o.d Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 What Hath G.o.d Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 (Oxford University Press, 2008). (Oxford University Press, 2008).

There are surprisingly few good secondary sources on the presidential campaign of 1860, especially treating the Lincoln campaign as a gra.s.sroots cultural phenomenon rather than simply a product of machinations among Republican leaders. Burlingame's Lincoln biography, cited above, offers some useful details. Gil Troy's lively chronicle of American presidential campaigns, See How They Ran: The Changing Role of the Presidential Candidate See How They Ran: The Changing Role of the Presidential Candidate (Harvard University Press, 1996), includes a chapter on Lincoln's two campaigns. See also Wayne C. Williams, (Harvard University Press, 1996), includes a chapter on Lincoln's two campaigns. See also Wayne C. Williams, A Rail Splitter for President A Rail Splitter for President (University of Denver Press, 1951) and William E. Gienapp, "Who Voted for Lincoln?" in John Thomas, ed., (University of Denver Press, 1951) and William E. Gienapp, "Who Voted for Lincoln?" in John Thomas, ed., Abraham Lincoln and the American Political Tradition Abraham Lincoln and the American Political Tradition (University of Ma.s.sachusetts Press, 1986). Henry Mayer's magnificent (University of Ma.s.sachusetts Press, 1986). Henry Mayer's magnificent All On Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery All On Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: St. Martin's, 1998) portrays not just the great abolitionist himself but also the larger movement of which he was a part. (New York: St. Martin's, 1998) portrays not just the great abolitionist himself but also the larger movement of which he was a part.

A superb recent article by Jon Grinspan, "'Young Men for War': The Wide Awakes and Lincoln's 1860 Campaign," Journal of American History, Journal of American History, vol. 96, no.2 (September 2009) is, rather amazingly, the only in-depth treatment that the Wide Awakes have ever received. vol. 96, no.2 (September 2009) is, rather amazingly, the only in-depth treatment that the Wide Awakes have ever received.

Donald E. Reynolds's Texas Terror: The Slave Insurrection Panic of 1860 and the Secession of the Lower South Texas Terror: The Slave Insurrection Panic of 1860 and the Secession of the Lower South (Louisiana State University Press, 2007) offers an important (though horrifying) account of racial violence in the Lone Star State and throughout the South in the summer and fall of 1860, a pivotal but hitherto almost ignored factor in fueling the secession crisis. (Louisiana State University Press, 2007) offers an important (though horrifying) account of racial violence in the Lone Star State and throughout the South in the summer and fall of 1860, a pivotal but hitherto almost ignored factor in fueling the secession crisis.

Chapter Two: The Old Gentlemen.

Seven decades after its original publication, Margaret Leech's Reveille in Was.h.i.+ngton, 18601865 Reveille in Was.h.i.+ngton, 18601865 (New York: Harper & Bros., 1941) is still a paragon of historical writing, unsurpa.s.sed as an account of the nation's capital just before and during the war. The London (New York: Harper & Bros., 1941) is still a paragon of historical writing, unsurpa.s.sed as an account of the nation's capital just before and during the war. The London Times Times's William Howard Russell arrived in Was.h.i.+ngton just before the attack on Sumter and recorded his impressions (both there and throughout the country) in My Diary North and South My Diary North and South (Boston: T.O.H.P. Burnham, 1863), a delightfully wicked book. Mrs. Roger Pryor's gossipy (Boston: T.O.H.P. Burnham, 1863), a delightfully wicked book. Mrs. Roger Pryor's gossipy Reminiscences of Peace and War Reminiscences of Peace and War (New York: Macmillan, 1908) vividly recalls antebellum Was.h.i.+ngton's social and political circles from the viewpoint of a congressman's wife. Constance McLaughlin Green's several books on Was.h.i.+ngton are rich in detail, with (New York: Macmillan, 1908) vividly recalls antebellum Was.h.i.+ngton's social and political circles from the viewpoint of a congressman's wife. Constance McLaughlin Green's several books on Was.h.i.+ngton are rich in detail, with The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton University Press, 1967) ahead of its time in its portrayal of the local African-American community. Ernest B. Furgurson's more recent (Princeton University Press, 1967) ahead of its time in its portrayal of the local African-American community. Ernest B. Furgurson's more recent Freedom Rising: Was.h.i.+ngton in the Civil War Freedom Rising: Was.h.i.+ngton in the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005) is another good account. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005) is another good account.

The only full-scale modern biography of John J. Crittenden is Albert D. Kirwan's sympathetic John J. Crittenden: The Struggle for the Union John J. Crittenden: The Struggle for the Union (University Press of Kentucky, 1962). The senator's papers in the Library of Congress are an invaluable resource. (University Press of Kentucky, 1962). The senator's papers in the Library of Congress are an invaluable resource.

Among the many fine books on the run-up to the war, two have particularly shaped my own account. The first of these is Kenneth Stampp's And the War Came: The North and the Secession Crisis, 18601861 And the War Came: The North and the Secession Crisis, 18601861 (Louisiana State University Press, 1950); the second is David M. Potter's equally cla.s.sic (Louisiana State University Press, 1950); the second is David M. Potter's equally cla.s.sic The Impending Crisis, 18481861 The Impending Crisis, 18481861 (New York: Harper & Row, 1976). For the Peace Conference, see Robert Gray Gunderson's (New York: Harper & Row, 1976). For the Peace Conference, see Robert Gray Gunderson's Old Gentlemen's Convention: The Was.h.i.+ngton Peace Conference of 1861 Old Gentlemen's Convention: The Was.h.i.+ngton Peace Conference of 1861 (University of Wisconsin Press, 1961). Gabor S. Borritt, ed., (University of Wisconsin Press, 1961). Gabor S. Borritt, ed., Why the Civil War Came Why the Civil War Came (Oxford University Press, 1996) offers a number of enlightening essays. (Oxford University Press, 1996) offers a number of enlightening essays.

Three: Forces of Nature For Abraham Lincoln's journey to Was.h.i.+ngton and his activities and political strategy throughout the interim between his election and his inauguration, Harold Holzer's Lincoln President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter 18601861 Lincoln President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter 18601861 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008) is an authoritative, deeply researched source. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008) is an authoritative, deeply researched source.

The standard biography of James Garfield is Allan Peskin's Garfield: A Biography Garfield: A Biography (Kent State University Press, 1978). Margaret Leech was working on a biography at the time of her death in 1974, focusing on the social and political world within which her subject lived; she had gotten as far as the Civil War. The book was finished posthumously by Harry J. Brown (unfortunately in a perfunctory fas.h.i.+on) and published as (Kent State University Press, 1978). Margaret Leech was working on a biography at the time of her death in 1974, focusing on the social and political world within which her subject lived; she had gotten as far as the Civil War. The book was finished posthumously by Harry J. Brown (unfortunately in a perfunctory fas.h.i.+on) and published as The Garfield Orbit The Garfield Orbit (New York: Harper & Row, 1978). The best source on Garfield's early political career is Robert I. Cottom's "To Be Among the First: The Early Career of James A. Garfield, 18311868" (PhD dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1975). W. W. Wa.s.son's (New York: Harper & Row, 1978). The best source on Garfield's early political career is Robert I. Cottom's "To Be Among the First: The Early Career of James A. Garfield, 18311868" (PhD dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1975). W. W. Wa.s.son's James A. Garfield: His Religion and Education. James A. Garfield: His Religion and Education. (Nashville: Tennessee Book Co., 1952) and Hendrik Booraem's (Nashville: Tennessee Book Co., 1952) and Hendrik Booraem's The Road to Respectability: James A. Garfield and His World, 18441852 The Road to Respectability: James A. Garfield and His World, 18441852 (Bucknell University Press, 1988) are useful as well. (Bucknell University Press, 1988) are useful as well. The Diary of James A. Garfield The Diary of James A. Garfield (Michigan State University Press, 1967), edited by Harry J. Brown and Frederick D. Williams, is a window into Garfield's intimate thoughts from his teenage years until the end of his life, although unfortunately he did not maintain the diary consistently during the late 1850s and early 1860s. The best published collection of his writings during that period is Mary L. Hinsdale, ed., (Michigan State University Press, 1967), edited by Harry J. Brown and Frederick D. Williams, is a window into Garfield's intimate thoughts from his teenage years until the end of his life, although unfortunately he did not maintain the diary consistently during the late 1850s and early 1860s. The best published collection of his writings during that period is Mary L. Hinsdale, ed., Garfield-Hinsdale Letters: Correspondence Between James Abram Garfield and Burke Aaron Hinsdale Garfield-Hinsdale Letters: Correspondence Between James Abram Garfield and Burke Aaron Hinsdale (University of Michigan Press, 1949). The Library of Congress's immense collection of Garfield's papers, along with another significant deposit at the Western Reserve Historical Society, contain more information about the twentieth president than almost any historian has ever wanted to know. (University of Michigan Press, 1949). The Library of Congress's immense collection of Garfield's papers, along with another significant deposit at the Western Reserve Historical Society, contain more information about the twentieth president than almost any historian has ever wanted to know.

The fascinating cultural history of nineteenth-century Ohio (I am aware that this phrase may strike some readers as an oxymoron) unfolds elegantly in a book by Andrew R. L. Cayton, Ohio: The History of a People Ohio: The History of a People (Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 2002). For the Civil War in Ohio, see David Van Ta.s.sel, (Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 2002). For the Civil War in Ohio, see David Van Ta.s.sel, "Beyond Bayonets": The Civil War in Northern Ohio "Beyond Bayonets": The Civil War in Northern Ohio (Kent State University Press, 2006); as well as Eric J. Cardinal, "The Ohio Democracy and the Crisis of Disunion, 18601861," (Kent State University Press, 2006); as well as Eric J. Cardinal, "The Ohio Democracy and the Crisis of Disunion, 18601861," Ohio History, Ohio History, vol. 86, no. 1 (Winter 1977). The most thorough sources on the Disciples movement are Henry K. Shaw, vol. 86, no. 1 (Winter 1977). The most thorough sources on the Disciples movement are Henry K. Shaw, Buckeye Disciples: A History of the Disciples of Christ in Ohio Buckeye Disciples: A History of the Disciples of Christ in Ohio (St. Louis: Christian Board of Publication, 1952); and A.S. Hayden, (St. Louis: Christian Board of Publication, 1952); and A.S. Hayden, Early History of the Disciples in the Western Reserve, Ohio Early History of the Disciples in the Western Reserve, Ohio (Cincinnati: Chase & Hall, 1875). (Cincinnati: Chase & Hall, 1875).

For the prewar Northern ideology of individualism, personal freedom, and egalitarianism, see Earl J. Hess, Liberty, Virtue, and Progress: Northerners and Their War for the Union Liberty, Virtue, and Progress: Northerners and Their War for the Union (2nd ed., Fordham University Press, 1997). The cla.s.sic treatment of the growth of free-soil republicanism and the birth of the Republican Party is Eric Foner's (2nd ed., Fordham University Press, 1997). The cla.s.sic treatment of the growth of free-soil republicanism and the birth of the Republican Party is Eric Foner's Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War (2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1995). The cultural underpinnings of the Union cause are explored in James M. McPherson's (2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1995). The cultural underpinnings of the Union cause are explored in James M. McPherson's For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (Oxford University Press, 1997) and in Susan-Mary Grant's (Oxford University Press, 1997) and in Susan-Mary Grant's North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Ident.i.ty in the Antebellum Era North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Ident.i.ty in the Antebellum Era (University Press of Kansas, 2000), which is especially incisive in its a.n.a.lysis of how Northerners contrasted their culture to that of the South. Also see Melinda Lawson, (University Press of Kansas, 2000), which is especially incisive in its a.n.a.lysis of how Northerners contrasted their culture to that of the South. Also see Melinda Lawson, Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (University Press of Kansas, 2002). (University Press of Kansas, 2002).

The abolitionist movement in Ohio is chronicled in William Cheek and Annie Lee Cheek, John Mercer Langston and the Fight for Black Freedom, 18291865 John Mercer Langston and the Fight for Black Freedom, 18291865 (University of Illinois Press, 1989). Dorothy Sterling's (University of Illinois Press, 1989). Dorothy Sterling's Ahead of Her Time: Abby Kelley and the Politics of Antislavery Ahead of Her Time: Abby Kelley and the Politics of Antislavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991) is the best biography of that fiery crusader. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991) is the best biography of that fiery crusader.

Chapter Four: A Shot in the Dark.

For sources on Fort Sumter, see under Prologue, above.

Thomas Bartel's Abner Doubleday: A Civil War Biography Abner Doubleday: A Civil War Biography (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2010) and JoAnn Smith Bartlett's (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2010) and JoAnn Smith Bartlett's Abner Doubleday: His Life and Times: Looking Beyond the Myth Abner Doubleday: His Life and Times: Looking Beyond the Myth (Bloomington, Indiana: Xlibris Corporation, 2009) are the only two biographies of baseball's noninventor. Richard Wagner's (Bloomington, Indiana: Xlibris Corporation, 2009) are the only two biographies of baseball's noninventor. Richard Wagner's For Honor, Flag, and Family: Civil War Major General SamuelW. Crawford, 18271892 For Honor, Flag, and Family: Civil War Major General SamuelW. Crawford, 18271892 (s.h.i.+ppensburg, Pa.: White Mane Books, 2005) treats Sumter's surgeon. Edward M. Coffman's (s.h.i.+ppensburg, Pa.: White Mane Books, 2005) treats Sumter's surgeon. Edward M. Coffman's The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 17841898 The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 17841898 (Oxford University Press, 1986) is a vivid and well-a.n.a.lyzed portrayal of that inst.i.tution. (Oxford University Press, 1986) is a vivid and well-a.n.a.lyzed portrayal of that inst.i.tution.

John G. Nicolay and John Hay's multivolume Abraham Lincoln: A History Abraham Lincoln: A History (New York: The Century Company, 1890) traces events leading up to and during the war from the perspective of the two men closest to the president throughout that period. (New York: The Century Company, 1890) traces events leading up to and during the war from the perspective of the two men closest to the president throughout that period.

Joshua Wolf Shenk's thoughtful and empathetic Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005) opens a new window into the soul of the sixteenth president, shedding light on almost every aspect of Lincoln's life and decision making. William Lee Miller's (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005) opens a new window into the soul of the sixteenth president, shedding light on almost every aspect of Lincoln's life and decision making. William Lee Miller's President Lincoln: The Duty of a Statesman President Lincoln: The Duty of a Statesman (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008) traces its subject's moral and political evolution. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008) traces its subject's moral and political evolution.

In reconstructing the difficult chronology and interlocking events of the secession crisis, I was aided greatly by Russell McClintock's recent Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession, Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession, cited above. cited above.

Chapter Five: The Volunteer.

The only relatively modern biography of Elmer Ellsworth is Ruth Painter Randall's lively Colonel Elmer Ellsworth: A Biography of Lincoln's Friend and First Hero of the Civil War Colonel Elmer Ellsworth: A Biography of Lincoln's Friend and First Hero of the Civil War (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1960), which is carefully researched and well written but unfortunately not footnoted. Charles Ingraham, (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1960), which is carefully researched and well written but unfortunately not footnoted. Charles Ingraham, Elmer E. Ellsworth and the Zouaves of '61 Elmer E. Ellsworth and the Zouaves of '61 (University of Chicago Press, 1925) and Luther E. Robinson, "Elmer Ellsworth, First Martyr of the Civil War," in (University of Chicago Press, 1925) and Luther E. Robinson, "Elmer Ellsworth, First Martyr of the Civil War," in Transactions of the Illinois State Historical Society for the Year 1923, Transactions of the Illinois State Historical Society for the Year 1923, both contain useful information and lengthy pa.s.sages from period sources. both contain useful information and lengthy pa.s.sages from period sources.

On the cultural history of youth in nineteenth-century America, see Glenn Wallach, Obedient Sons: The Discourse of Youth and Generations in American Culture, 16301860 Obedient Sons: The Discourse of Youth and Generations in American Culture, 16301860 (University of Ma.s.sachusetts Press, 1997); Anthony Rotundo, (University of Ma.s.sachusetts Press, 1997); Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to Modern Era American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to Modern Era (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Howard P. Chudacoff, (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Howard P. Chudacoff, The Age of the Bachelor: Creating an American Subculture The Age of the Bachelor: Creating an American Subculture (Princeton University Press, 1999); Thomas Augst, (Princeton University Press, 1999); Thomas Augst, The Clerk's Tale: Young Men and Moral Life in Nineteenth-Century America The Clerk's Tale: Young Men and Moral Life in Nineteenth-Century America (University of Chicago Press, 2003); and Michael S. Kimmel, (University of Chicago Press, 2003); and Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York: Free Press, 2006). (New York: Free Press, 2006).

Marcus Cunliffe's Soldiers and Civilians: The Martial Spirit in America, 17751865, Soldiers and Civilians: The Martial Spirit in America, 17751865, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968) is a subtle, learned, and colorful exploration of Americans' ambivalent att.i.tudes toward war and the military. See also JamesB. Whisker, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968) is a subtle, learned, and colorful exploration of Americans' ambivalent att.i.tudes toward war and the military. See also JamesB. Whisker, The Rise and Decline of the American Militia System The Rise and Decline of the American Militia System (Susquehanna University Press, 1999). (Susquehanna University Press, 1999).

Michael Burlingame, in Lincoln's Journalist: John Hay's Anonymous Writings for the Press, 18601864 Lincoln's Journalist: John Hay's Anonymous Writings for the Press, 18601864 (Southern Illinois University Press, 1998), collects a number of articles that provide glimpses of Was.h.i.+ngton during the first weeks of the war, from someone close to both Lincoln and Ellsworth. Burlingame also edited (Southern Illinois University Press, 1998), collects a number of articles that provide glimpses of Was.h.i.+ngton during the first weeks of the war, from someone close to both Lincoln and Ellsworth. Burlingame also edited At Lincoln's Side: John Hay's Correspondence and Selected Writings At Lincoln's Side: John Hay's Correspondence and Selected Writings (Southern Illinois University Press, 2000) and, with John R. Turner Ettlinger, (Southern Illinois University Press, 2000) and, with John R. Turner Ettlinger, Inside Lincoln's White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay Inside Lincoln's White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay (Southern Illinois University Press, 1999)-both offer further accounts by Lincoln's voluble private secretary-as well as (Southern Illinois University Press, 1999)-both offer further accounts by Lincoln's voluble private secretary-as well as With Lincoln in the White House: Letters, Memoranda, and Other Writings of John G. Nicolay, 18601865 With Lincoln in the White House: Letters, Memoranda, and Other Writings of John G. Nicolay, 18601865 (Southern Illinois University Press, 2000). (Southern Illinois University Press, 2000).

Chapter Six: Gateways to the West.

For the building of the transcontinental telegraph, see James Gamble, "Wiring a Continent," The Californian, The Californian, vol. 3, no. 6 (June 1881); also Carlyle N. Klise, "The First Transcontinental Telegraph," (master's thesis, Iowa State University, 1937); the growth of Western Union is covered in Robert Luther Thompson's vol. 3, no. 6 (June 1881); also Carlyle N. Klise, "The First Transcontinental Telegraph," (master's thesis, Iowa State University, 1937); the growth of Western Union is covered in Robert Luther Thompson's Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States (Princeton University Press, 1947). The most reliable account of the Pony Express is Christopher Corbett's myth-busting (Princeton University Press, 1947). The most reliable account of the Pony Express is Christopher Corbett's myth-busting Orphans Preferred: The Twisted Truth and Lasting Legend of the Pony Express Orphans Preferred: The Twisted Truth and Lasting Legend of the Pony Express (New York: Broadway Books, 2003). See also John D. Unruh, Jr., (New York: Broadway Books, 2003). See also John D. Unruh, Jr., The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 184060 The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 184060 (University of Illinois Press, 1979). (University of Illinois Press, 1979).

Pamela Herr provides the best account of Jessie Fremont's life in Jessie Benton Fremont: A Biography Jessie Benton Fremont: A Biography (New York: Franklin Watts, 1987). Herr also edited, with Mary Lee Spence, (New York: Franklin Watts, 1987). Herr also edited, with Mary Lee Spence, The Letters of Jessie Benton Fremont The Letters of Jessie Benton Fremont (University of Illinois Press, 1993), a lively collection of correspondence. For John C. Fremont's life and career, see Tom Chaffin's fine biography, (University of Illinois Press, 1993), a lively collection of correspondence. For John C. Fremont's life and career, see Tom Chaffin's fine biography, Pathfinder: John Charles Fremont and the Course of American Empire Pathfinder: John Charles Fremont and the Course of American Empire (New York: Hill and w.a.n.g, 2002), along with Allan Nevins's cla.s.sic (New York: Hill and w.a.n.g, 2002), along with Allan Nevins's cla.s.sic Fremont: Pathmarker of the West Fremont: Pathmarker of the West (University of Nebraska Press, 1992; originally published 1928). Sally Denton's (University of Nebraska Press, 1992; originally published 1928). Sally Denton's Pa.s.sion and Principle: John and Jessie Fremont, the Couple Whose Power, Politics, and Love Shaped Nineteenth-Century America Pa.s.sion and Principle: John and Jessie Fremont, the Couple Whose Power, Politics, and Love Shaped Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Bloomsbury, 2007) is an engaging joint biography. (New York: Bloomsbury, 2007) is an engaging joint biography.

For California and the Civil War, see Leonard L. Richards, The California Gold Rush and the Coming of the Civil War The California Gold Rush and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), as well as Kevin Starr's compelling (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), as well as Kevin Starr's compelling Americans and the California Dream, 18501915 Americans and the California Dream, 18501915 (Oxford University Press, 1973). Thomas Starr King's life and career have been covered most recently in Robert A. Monzingo's (Oxford University Press, 1973). Thomas Starr King's life and career have been covered most recently in Robert A. Monzingo's Thomas Starr King: Eminent Californian, Civil War Statesman, Unitarian Minister Thomas Starr King: Eminent Californian, Civil War Statesman, Unitarian Minister (Pacific Grove, California: Boxwood Press, 1991) and in Richard Peterson's "Thomas Starr King in California, 186064: Forgotten Naturalist of the Civil War Years," (Pacific Grove, California: Boxwood Press, 1991) and in Richard Peterson's "Thomas Starr King in California, 186064: Forgotten Naturalist of the Civil War Years," California History, California History, vol.69, no. 1 (Spring 1990). Among several earlier biographies, Charles W. Wendte's vol.69, no. 1 (Spring 1990). Among several earlier biographies, Charles W. Wendte's Thomas Starr King: Patriot and Preacher Thomas Starr King: Patriot and Preacher (Boston: The Beacon Press, 1921) is the most valuable. Some of King's sermons were published posthumously in volumes of his collected work; hundreds more are preserved as ma.n.u.script drafts at the Boston Public Library. His personal correspondence is in the Bancroft Library, University of California. (Boston: The Beacon Press, 1921) is the most valuable. Some of King's sermons were published posthumously in volumes of his collected work; hundreds more are preserved as ma.n.u.script drafts at the Boston Public Library. His personal correspondence is in the Bancroft Library, University of California.

Adam Arenson's recent book The Great Heart of the Republic: St. Louis and the Cultural Civil War The Great Heart of the Republic: St. Louis and the Cultural Civil War (Harvard University Press, 2010) convincingly treats the city as a fulcrum of the national crisis. The most thorough blow-by-blow account of the war there is Louis S. Gerteis's (Harvard University Press, 2010) convincingly treats the city as a fulcrum of the national crisis. The most thorough blow-by-blow account of the war there is Louis S. Gerteis's Civil War St. Louis Civil War St. Louis (University of Kansas Press, 2001). The only modern biography of Nathaniel Lyon is Christopher Phillips's (University of Kansas Press, 2001). The only modern biography of Nathaniel Lyon is Christopher Phillips's d.a.m.ned Yankee: The Life of General Nathaniel Lyon d.a.m.ned Yankee: The Life of General Nathaniel Lyon (Louisiana State University, 1996), a book that, as its t.i.tle suggests, betrays so little sympathy for its subject that one wonders how the author managed to get through writing it. Steven Rowan has done important work bringing to light the early history of the city's German community, including (Louisiana State University, 1996), a book that, as its t.i.tle suggests, betrays so little sympathy for its subject that one wonders how the author managed to get through writing it. Steven Rowan has done important work bringing to light the early history of the city's German community, including Germans for a Free Missouri: Translations from the St. Louis Radical Press, 18571862 Germans for a Free Missouri: Translations from the St. Louis Radical Press, 18571862 (University of Missouri Press, 1983), coedited with James Neal Primm; and his edited translation of Henry Boernstein's autobiography, published as (University of Missouri Press, 1983), coedited with James Neal Primm; and his edited translation of Henry Boernstein's autobiography, published as Memoirs of a n.o.body: The Missouri Years of an Austrian Radical, Memoirs of a n.o.body: The Missouri Years of an Austrian Radical, 18491866 (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997). For the Forty-Eighters, see A. E. Zucker, ed., 18491866 (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997). For the Forty-Eighters, see A. E. Zucker, ed., The Forty-Eighters: Political Refugees of the German Revolution of 1848 The Forty-Eighters: Political Refugees of the German Revolution of 1848 (New York: Russell and Russell, 1967) and Carl Wittke, (New York: Russell and Russell, 1967) and Carl Wittke, Refugees of Revolution: The German Forty-Eighters in America Refugees of Revolution: The German Forty-Eighters in America (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1952). William E. Smith's (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1952). William E. Smith's The Francis Preston Blair Family in Politics The Francis Preston Blair Family in Politics (New York: Macmillan, 1933) traces the various schemes of Frank Blair and his ambitious kinsfolk. (New York: Macmillan, 1933) traces the various schemes of Frank Blair and his ambitious kinsfolk.

Chapter Seven: The Crossing.

See chapter 5 chapter 5, above, for sources on Ellsworth and the Fire Zouaves, and chapter 2 chapter 2 for sources on Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C. The scene of the troops in the Capitol and the general sights of Was.h.i.+ngton in the first weeks of the war are captured beautifully in Theodore Winthrop's essay "Was.h.i.+ngton as a Camp," published anonymously after his death in for sources on Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C. The scene of the troops in the Capitol and the general sights of Was.h.i.+ngton in the first weeks of the war are captured beautifully in Theodore Winthrop's essay "Was.h.i.+ngton as a Camp," published anonymously after his death in The Atlantic Monthly The Atlantic Monthly (July 1861). Drew Gilpin Faust's (July 1861). Drew Gilpin Faust's This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008) puts Ellsworth's death into a larger, tragic, context. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008) puts Ellsworth's death into a larger, tragic, context.

Chapter Eight: Freedom's Fortress.

An essential source for the story of the Hampton Roads fugitives is Edward Lillie Pierce's largely firsthand account, "The Contrabands at Fortress Monroe," published anonymously in The Atlantic Monthly The Atlantic Monthly (November 1861). Pierce also sent regular dispatches (signed "P.") to the (November 1861). Pierce also sent regular dispatches (signed "P.") to the Boston Traveller Boston Traveller throughout his three-month stay at Monroe (AprilJuly 1861); these frequently include material that did not make it into the throughout his three-month stay at Monroe (AprilJuly 1861); these frequently include material that did not make it into the Atlantic Atlantic essay. Dozens of other newspaper and periodical correspondents converged upon Hampton Roads in the spring and summer of 1861, largely because people thought the first major battles of the war would be fought there-and when such battles failed to materialize, many of the reporters sent back copy about the contrabands. The archives of the American Missionary a.s.sociation (housed at Fisk University, Nashville, Tennessee, and also available on microfilm) include letters from the missionaries who began arriving at Fortress Monroe in the autumn of 1861, some of which recount various contrabands' life stories-although these should be used with care, since some of the missionaries were clearly seeking dramatic or shocking testimonies rather than representative ones. essay. Dozens of other newspaper and periodical correspondents converged upon Hampton Roads in the spring and summer of 1861, largely because people thought the first major battles of the war would be fought there-and when such battles failed to materialize, many of the reporters sent back copy about the contrabands. The archives of the American Missionary a.s.sociation (housed at Fisk University, Nashville, Tennessee, and also available on microfilm) include letters from the missionaries who began arriving at Fortress Monroe in the autumn of 1861, some of which recount various contrabands' life stories-although these should be used with care, since some of the missionaries were clearly seeking dramatic or shocking testimonies rather than representative ones.

The two best modern biographies of Benjamin F. Butler are Hans L. Trefousse, Ben Butler: The South Called Him Beast Ben Butler: The South Called Him Beast (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1957), and Howard P. Nash, (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1957), and Howard P. Nash, Stormy Petrel: The Life and Times of General Benjamin F. Butler, 18181893 Stormy Petrel: The Life and Times of General Benjamin F. Butler, 18181893 (Fairleigh d.i.c.kinson University Press, 1969). The general's own memoir, (Fairleigh d.i.c.kinson University Press, 1969). The general's own memoir, Butler's Book: Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Maj.-Gen. Benjamin F. Butler Butler's Book: Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Maj.-Gen. Benjamin F. Butler (Boston: A. M. Thayer & Co., 1892) is a small masterpiece of self-aggrandizement, certainly not without its charms. The general's letters are collected in (Boston: A. M. Thayer & Co., 1892) is a small masterpiece of self-aggrandizement, certainly not without its charms. The general's letters are collected in Private and Official Correspondence of Gen. Benjamin F. Butler During the Period of the Civil War Private and Official Correspondence of Gen. Benjamin F. Butler During the Period of the Civil War (Norwood, Ma.s.sachusetts: The Plimpton Press, 1917). Butler's papers in the Library of Congress include far more extensive material from the war years, and provide virtually a day-by-day picture of his activities at Fortress Monroe. (Norwood, Ma.s.sachusetts: The Plimpton Press, 1917). Butler's papers in the Library of Congress include far more extensive material from the war years, and provide virtually a day-by-day picture of his activities at Fortress Monroe.

For nineteenth-century Hampton, see Robert F. Engs, Freedom's First Generation: Black Hampton, Virginia, 18611890 Freedom's First Generation: Black Hampton, Virginia, 18611890 (Fordham University Press, 2004). Marion L. Starkey's (Fordham University Press, 2004). Marion L. Starkey's The First Plantation: A History of Hampton and Elizabeth City County, Virginia, 16071887 The First Plantation: A History of Hampton and Elizabeth City County, Virginia, 16071887 (n.p., 1936) offers a surprisingly honest, nuanced, and sympathetic (for its place and time) account of black life there during slavery, along with the recollections of the last few surviving people who remembered the antebellum town. (n.p., 1936) offers a surprisingly honest, nuanced, and sympathetic (for its place and time) account of black life there during slavery, along with the recollections of the last few surviving people who remembered the antebellum town.

Other works give a broader picture of society and race relations in antebellum Virginia. Frederick Law Olmsted's A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States (New York: Dix & Edwards, 1861) is the best a.n.a.lysis of Virginia's economy and society by a period observer. Melvin Patrick Ely's (New York: Dix & Edwards, 1861) is the best a.n.a.lysis of Virginia's economy and society by a period observer. Melvin Patrick Ely's Israel on the Appomattox: A Southern Experiment in Black Freedom from the 1790s Through the Civil War Israel on the Appomattox: A Southern Experiment in Black Freedom from the 1790s Through the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004) is a valuable community study. Steven Deyle's (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004) is a valuable community study. Steven Deyle's Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life (Oxford University Press, 2005) situates often horrifying details within a larger context. Susan Dunn's (Oxford University Press, 2005) situates often horrifying details within a larger context. Susan Dunn's Dominion of Memories: Jefferson, Madison, and the Decline of Virginia Dominion of Memories: Jefferson, Madison, and the Decline of Virginia (New York: Basic Books, 2007) provides a subtle a.n.a.lysis of evolving racial att.i.tudes amid rapid changes in the economy and society of the Upper South. Scot French's (New York: Basic Books, 2007) provides a subtle a.n.a.lysis of evolving racial att.i.tudes amid rapid changes in the economy and society of the Upper South. Scot French's The Rebellious Slave: Nat Turner in American Memory The Rebellious Slave: Nat Turner in American Memory (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004) disentangles truth and myth. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004) disentangles truth and myth.

For the larger picture of racial dynamics during and after the war, Ira Berlin et al., eds., Freedom: A Doc.u.mentary History of Emanc.i.p.ation, 18611867 Freedom: A Doc.u.mentary History of Emanc.i.p.ation, 18611867 (Cambridge University Press, 1985) provides a distillation of voluminous material uncovered by the Freedmen and Southern Society Project. David Brion Davis's (Cambridge University Press, 1985) provides a distillation of voluminous material uncovered by the Freedmen and Southern Society Project. David Brion Davis's Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (Oxford University Press, 2006) offers an enlightening treatment of the contrabands within the larger story of slavery's end in the Western hemisphere. James M. McPherson's groundbreaking (Oxford University Press, 2006) offers an enlightening treatment of the contrabands within the larger story of slavery's end in the Western hemisphere. James M. McPherson's groundbreaking The Struggle for Equality: Abolitionists and the Negro in the Civil War and Reconstruction The Struggle for Equality: Abolitionists and the Negro in the Civil War and Reconstruction (Princeton University Press, 1964) traces the battle over race and slavery throughout the course of the war; Benjamin Quarles's (Princeton University Press, 1964) traces the battle over race and slavery throughout the course of the war; Benjamin Quarles's The Negro in the Civil War The Negro in the Civil War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953) remains a valuable resource. Steven Hahn's (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953) remains a valuable resource. Steven Hahn's A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South, from Slavery to the Great Migration A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South, from Slavery to the Great Migration (Harvard University Press, 2003) does much to correct mistaken impressions of black pa.s.sivity. Interviews with ex-slaves conducted in the 1930s under the auspices of the Works Progress Administration are collected in George P. Rawick, ed., (Harvard University Press, 2003) does much to correct mistaken impressions of black pa.s.sivity. Interviews with ex-slaves conducted in the 1930s under the auspices of the Works Progress Administration are collected in George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (Westport, Conn., 197279). (Westport, Conn., 197279).

Surprisingly, few studies specifically treat the contrabands in any depth. One of these, Armstead Robinson's Bitter Fruits of Bondage: The Demise of Slavery and the Collapse of the Confederacy, 18611865 Bitter Fruits of Bondage: The Demise of Slavery and the Collapse of the Confederacy, 18611865 (University of Virginia Press, 2005), is a provocative and compelling book, persuasively arguing that Southern blacks played a major role in undermining the rebel war effort. An encouraging sign of further interest in the subject is Kate Masur's article "'A Rare Phenomenon of Philological Vegetation': The Word 'Contraband' and the Meanings of Emanc.i.p.ation in the United States," (University of Virginia Press, 2005), is a provocative and compelling book, persuasively arguing that Southern blacks played a major role in undermining the rebel war effort. An encouraging sign of further interest in the subject is Kate Masur's article "'A Rare Phenomenon of Philological Vegetation': The Word 'Contraband' and the Meanings of Emanc.i.p.ation in the United States," Journal of American History, Journal of American History, vol. 93, no. 4 (March 2007). See also Stephanie McCurry, vol. 93, no. 4 (March 2007). See also Stephanie McCurry, Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South (Harvard University Press, 2010). (Harvard University Press, 2010).

Many books, on the other hand, have examined the contested subject of Lincoln and slavery. Two of the best are Richard Striner's Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery (Oxford University Press, 2006) and Eric Foner's (Oxford University Press, 2006) and Eric Foner's The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010). (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010).

Chapter Nine: Independence Day.

Harry V. Jaffa's A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000) includes an in-depth a.n.a.lysis of the history and political philosophy undergirding Lincoln's July 4, 1861, message to Congress. Douglas Wilson, in (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000) includes an in-depth a.n.a.lysis of the history and political philosophy undergirding Lincoln's July 4, 1861, message to Congress. Douglas Wilson, in Lincoln's Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words Lincoln's Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006) meticulously reconstructs Lincoln's composition of the doc.u.ment by examining its various drafts. Adam Gopnik's stimulating (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006) meticulously reconstructs Lincoln's composition of the doc.u.ment by examining its various drafts. Adam Gopnik's stimulating Angels and Ages: A Short Book About Darwin, Lincoln, and Modern Life Angels and Ages: A Short Book About Darwin, Lincoln, and Modern Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009) speaks eloquently of Lincoln and the concept of the rule of law, while Richard Striner's (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009) speaks eloquently of Lincoln and the concept of the rule of law, while Richard Striner's Lincoln's Way: How Six Great Presidents Created American Power Lincoln's Way: How Six Great Presidents Created American Power (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010) proposes Lincoln as a figure embodying both the progressive and conservative traditions in American politics. (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010) proposes Lincoln as a figure embodying both the progressive and conservative traditions in American politics.

For the Comet of 1861, see David A. Seargent's The Greatest Comets in History: Broom Stars and Celestial Scimitars The Greatest Comets in History: Broom Stars and Celestial Scimitars (New York: Springer Science, 2009). (New York: Springer Science, 2009).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

I would especially like to thank two people: my friend and colleague Ted Widmer and my friend and student Jim Schelberg.

Ted has made so many good things happen: bringing me to the Eastern Sh.o.r.e of Maryland and to Was.h.i.+ngton College; introducing me to the joy of teaching; and, through countless conversations over the past nine years, opening my love of American history in new directions. (Not to mention some memorable nights in Chestertown with him and his family, dancing to 1970s rock in a 1730s house.) Ted's work as a writer and public intellectual sets a high standard indeed. I am grateful to him as well for reading my entire ma.n.u.script and offering insights on subjects from beards to baseball, as few but he can.

Jim was present throughout the creation of this book. If not for his interest in the Civil War during his freshman year of college, we never would have come across those letters in the attic that rekindled my own curiosity about 1861. One year later, Jim deployed to Afghanistan as a U.S. Marine fighting in a twenty-first-century conflict; his experiences there gave me a new understanding of how-as he wrote to me in a letter from far-off Helmand Province-"strange and unpredictable things occur in politics and war." After Jim's return, he generously a.s.sisted with research, during which we had many conversations about both the present and the past. The book truly would not have been the same without him.

Abbie Kowalewski, gifted and pa.s.sionate student of the past, constantly reminded me that history is a story of people, not abstractions. Our regular breakfasts before my research sessions at the Library of Congress sent me sailing into the nineteenth century with the wind at my back.

Birch Bayh, Kitty Bayh, Richard Ben Cramer, and Joan Smith-cherished friends all-helped me through a rough patch and extended many other kindnesses (and meals) throughout the course of this project. Birch embodies the kind of statesmans.h.i.+p our country sorely needed, and finally got, in 1861-not to mention the kind that it could use in 2011. Richard is one of the snazziest writers I know. Kitty and Joan are two of the most thoughtful and civilized readers I know; moreover, Joan provided invaluable help with my ill.u.s.trations and bibliography. For offering inspiration and encouragement (not least by example) when I needed it most, I also thank my friends Marc Pachter, Joshua Wolf Shenk, and especially Robert Wilson.

I am proud to be a member of Was.h.i.+ngton College's extraordinary community of teachers and students. I feel especially fortunate to work with a superb group of colleagues at the C. V. Starr Center for the Study of the American Experience, each of whom brings to bear his or her own perspective on history, and who made my life both easier and happier throughout the course of this project: Jill Ogline t.i.tus, Jenifer Emley, Michael Buckley, and Lois Kitz. My colleague in the History Department, Richard Striner-author of important scholars.h.i.+p on Lincoln and the Civil War era-read my ma.n.u.script and offered helpful suggestions. Mitch.e.l.l Reiss, Baird Tipson, and Christopher Ames were all generous with their encouragement. For their support of my work at the Starr Center, I am also grateful to Jay Griswold, the Hodson Trust (especially the late Finn M.W. Caspersen), the late Margaret Nuttle, and Margaret Melcher. Toasts to Mary Wood, the late Howard Wood, James Wood, and Olivia Wood (as well as their thirteen generations of voluble and colorful ancestors) for the adventure at Poplar Grove that led me into 1861.

For a.s.sistance, support, and camaraderie of many kinds during the writing of this book, I thank Jeffrey Akman, Julianna Andrews, Adam Arenson, Richard Beeman, Felicia Bell, Ira Berlin, Dianne Brace and Bob Lynch, Clayton and Masha Black, Bill Bodenschatz, Jack Bohrer, Jennifer Brathovde, Wanda Brogdon, Elizabeth Broun, Elizabe