When All Hell Breaks Loose Part 9

There are more than 70,000 known water pollutants.

Nearly 10,000 children under the age of five in developing countries die as a result of illnesses by using impure water.

Worldwide, waterborne diseases cause approximately 15 million deaths each year.

10% Povidone-Iodine Solution Most everyone has this product in their home first-aid kit, more commonly recognized under the trade name Betadine. 10 percent povidone-iodine replaced tincture of iodine 2 percent as a topical wound disinfectant largely because povidone doesn't sting when it's applied to a wound. (Tinctures contain alcohol, which causes the stinging.) Povidone itself is nontoxic and was used as a blood extender during World War II. Regardless of the larger number-10 percent as opposed to 2 percent-use eight drops of 10 percent povidone-iodine per quart or liter of water instead of five drops. For a maximum dose, similar to using ten drops of tincture of iodine 2 percent instead of five, don't use more than sixteen drops of 10 percent povidone-iodine per quart of water. Buy the generic version of this product, not the trade name, at the grocery or drugstore to avoid paying high prices. Other than the variation in the dose, follow the same guidelines as used for 2 percent tincture above.

INGENIOUS IMPROVISED EYEDROPPER.

To use the halogens iodine and chlorine you'll need to measure them in drops (or gtts) to disinfect your water. The easiest way to do this is to have an eyedropper attached with a piece of string to the gallon of bleach, or rubber-banded or taped to the one-ounce bottle of iodine. (Most iodine bottles usually have a built-in dropper based on cohesion on the inside of the cap.) If you don't have an eyedropper, or lose the one you had, you can easily improvise a dropper from a spoon and a piece of paper.

Make a strip of paper three or four inches long and a quarter inch wide. It can be torn or cut with scissors so don't get fancy about it. Then, take an ordinary kitchen spoon, fill it halfway with iodine or chlorine, and place most of the paper in the spoon with about an inch overhanging the tip of the spoon. The strip of paper will saturate with the halogen, and with the spoon slightly tipped, will draw by capillary action, drop by drop, the halogen down the strip. If you want more drops faster, slightly increase the tilt of the spoon. If you're the visual type, check out the picture in the photo section.

Chlorine Bleach: Sodium Hypochlorite 5.25 and 6% Chlorine, like iodine, is a halogen that is commonly used to disinfect water. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) was initially tinkered with in 1785 by the Frenchman Berthollet, who first used it to bleach cotton. It has a pH of about 11 and is relatively unstable. It's widely used for a variety of purposes in many industries such as agriculture, chemical, gla.s.s, food, paper, pharmaceutical, and waste disposal.

While in the past iodine was used to disinfect town water supplies, chlorine has taken its place. Hypochlorite was first used to disinfect water to help combat cholera epidemics in London in 1854. It was used much later as a routine water treatment, initially in Belgium in 1902. Here in the United States, its first use in disinfecting city water happened in Jersey City, New Jersey, and Chicago, Illinois, in 1908. While the water treatment plant guys and gals use the big chlorine guns, we common folk have access to sodium hypochlorite 5.25 and 6 percent, otherwise known as chlorine bleach. For water disinfection purposes, buy bleach without added phosphates, dyes, or perfumes. It's commonly available at practically every supermarket, drug, and discount store in the nation, and if you purchase the generic brand, will cost less then two dollars for a gallon. This gallon will treat hundreds of quarts of nonpotable water while sanitizing your emergency potty, help you dispose of a corpse, clean your sink, bathtub, shower, and floor, as well as a.s.sist in removing the bloodstains from your s.h.i.+rt after fighting the neighbor over limited emergency supplies if you fail to act on the advice given in this book.

Short of drinking bleach outright, or using ridiculous amounts when disinfecting water, its toxicity is limited. It is corrosive and will stain clothing so keep it in an unbreakable container and use it with care. Hypochlorite solutions will eventually lose their chlorine over time as the active chlorine evaporates at a rate of 0.75 gram per day from the solution. Heat disintegrates it, as do air and sunlight, certain metals, and other things not normally found in a household. Thus rotate your sodium hypochlorite stock because when it has been stored for a long time, it becomes inactive. Store it in a cool area in an opaque, airtight container. Stay on the safe side with the potency of your chlorine and replace your gallon of bleach every year, whether you've opened it or not.

Since it is a halogen, like iodine, chlorine will readily bond to nitrogen compounds, organic and inorganic, present within the water. These nitrogen compounds, or pond sc.u.m, mess with the halogen's ability to kill, requiring either more sit time for the water to disinfect or greater amounts of halogen. Strain your water first through a bandana or some other article of clothing or let the water sit for a few hours in a five-gallon bucket to let the unwanted stuff settle to the bottom. This is especially important when using chlorine bleach, as organic matter bonds with the chlorine itself, actually changing its chemical makeup into something called chloramine, which does nothing to disinfect your water. Chlorine also doesn't work well with alkaline water and doesn't like being physically jostled, like being bounced around in a backpack. These are the main reasons I don't like it for disinfecting water in a wilderness setting, although I know people who are allergic to iodine and choose to use chlorine.

Important Note: I have seen conflicting data from reputable medical and chemical engineering sources regarding sodium hypochlorite's effectiveness against Giardia Lambia and Cryptosporidium. Some say it doesn't work and some say it does. Keep this in mind when using this halogen when these two critters are suspect.

Disinfecting Water with Chlorine Bleach To use chlorine for disinfecting clear and temperate water, add two to four drops of chlorine bleach per U.S. quart. Give the container a little shake and let it sit for thirty minutes. Slightly open the cap, dribble some disinfected water down the threads, and smell the water. IT SHOULD SMELL LIKE CHLORINE. If it doesn't, add another drop or two of bleach and let it sit for another thirty minutes. As stated above, chlorine is sensitive to the temperature of the water. For cold water, either add another drop or two of chlorine and/or let the water sit longer, two to three hours or more, in order for it to properly disinfect. As a side note, normal tap water contains about 0.2 to 0.5 ppm (parts per million) of chlorine, swimming pools contain 1.5 to 3.0 ppm, and hot tubs 3.0 to 5.0 ppm.

Attention! When using iodine or chlorine to disinfect suspect water sources, if in doubt, add more halogen and/or let the water sit longer.

Filters The first water filter was developed in 1685 by the Italian physician Lu Antonio Porzo. The filter consisted of both a settling and a sand filtration unit. Later, in 1746, French scientist Joseph Amy received the first patent for a filter design which used filters created from wool, sponges, and charcoal. It was used in households as early as 1750, and the trend seems to have continued.

Today many homes have water filters under their sinks to make munic.i.p.al water taste and look better. Backpacking and camping stores are chockful of portable water filters that are designed specifically to screen out harmful waterborne pathogens. Most of them accomplish their task in the same way, by having some sort of filter material that physically "filters out" the bad bugs. Some water filters are large and, while semiportable, are designed for the stationary disinfection of large volumes of water for group expeditions. A few water filters are ma.s.sive and are enjoyed by entire communities. The first U.S. water plant utilizing filters was built in 1872 in Poughkeepsie, New York. Other water filters are gravity fed and are ideal for use in the home. They can be purchased at many hardware stores and home building supply centers. Simply add the water in question into the catchment basin in the top, and it slowly percolates through the filters, screening out whatever pathogens the maker claims. . .you hope. If you purchase a filter of this type, make sure its intention is the filtering out of harmful pathogens (or chemicals), not simply prettying up how the water appears.

A filter's effectiveness is typically rated in microns. Different pathogens are different sizes, and the more expensive filters filter out the smallest, or those of the tiniest microns, in size. Viruses are so d.i.n.ky that many will not be caught by any filter. To compensate for this, some manufacturers offer the option of a screwon, iodine-impregnated post-filter that disinfects your water after it's filtered. As some water filters are expensive and can run more than two hundred and fifty dollars, the reader might wonder why people don't simply use iodine that costs less then two bucks and can disinfect wounds as well. My answer is, buyer ego or ignorance and effective marketing. If you have a known allergy to iodine, that's one good reason to use a filter (without the iodine post-filter), but you will still be at the mercy of most viruses. Currently, this is not a big deal in the United States, but it is a serious concern on your visit to India. Make note that after a disaster and the potential contamination of potable water sources with poor sanitary practices, dead bodies, and G.o.d knows what else, viruses can make a roaring comeback in your sleepy little town.

Although an important part of your survival plan is the creation of potable water, water filters offer up only one use, violating the credo of multiuse gear. Most are expensive, and all backpacking varieties are mechanical, and mechanical things have many moving parts, which can and do fail under use. I have seen more than one brand-new water filter choke in the field, much to the dismay of its owner. In the Southwest, where many rivers and streams look like chocolate milk due to sediments, filters can clog within minutes. They then go through a vicious cycle: cleaned, clogged, cleaned, clogged, etc. A filter is usually operated by pumping a k.n.o.b or lever with the hand, and the more clogged a filter becomes, the harder it is to operate. I have witnessed people in a sweaty lather trying to coax their filter to p.o.o.p out a quart of water. If you have the time and the container, pour gathered water into your trusty five-gallon bucket to allow sediments to settle. Lighter foreign objects can be skimmed off the top. Many backpacking filters have a foam float attached to the gathering hose that allows you to adjust where it's stationed in the water so you're not sucking dirt off the bottom. All but the most expensive water filters will need their filters changed on a regular basis so buy spares. Even the more expensive ceramic filters will eventually wear out from repeated cleanings so factor this into your family's preparedness plan.

Some filters claim to filter out certain amounts of radioactive material, heavy metals, and other chemical contaminants. The problem with these claims is, how are we to know? The people who have the real money to invest in whether any disinfection method works as claimed, be it a filter or halogen, are the medical community and the military. My local laboratory charges more than one hundred dollars to inspect for each pathogen that may or may not be present within questionable water.

All in all, I do appreciate filters for their convenience, but don't limit your water disinfection strategy to its mechanical mercy. One of the main advantages of filtration for certain types of gathered city water is that it is bound to remove at least some pollutants.

Filtering Toxic Chemicals, Heavy Metals, and Pollutants Killing organic waterborne pathogens is one thing, filtering out toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and other pollutants is an entirely different matter. A simple Web search will pull up dozens of water filter options that deal with waterborne pathogens and/or chemical contaminants. Many can be installed under the kitchen sink or attach to the water faucet itself.

Whole-house water filters are the parents of their kitchen-sink kids and can be quite complex. Many households use both, as whole-house systems filter water from where it enters the home but do nothing about potential lead contamination in the house's plumbing system. Most whole-house water filters use a four-stage filtration system to remove harmful contaminants from water. The first stage removes sediments in the water that may clog the remainder of the filter, reducing its effectiveness. The second stage utilizes a chemical process called water atomization that alters the molecular structure of chlorine and turns it into harmless zinc chloride. The third and fourth stages of filtration involve filters made from bituminous-activated carbon and coconut-sh.e.l.l activated carbon that filter out chemicals, pesticides, and other pollutants.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has two definitions for devices that filter out undesirable stuff from water. For an item to technically be called a "filter," it must be capable of a "4 Log" contaminant reduction, meaning at least 99.99 percent of the water's contaminants are removed. For an item to be called a "purifier," it must be capable of a "7 Log" contaminant reduction, meaning that 99.99999 percent of all contaminants are removed. Thus a purifier is one thousand times as effective as a filter. A 4 Log filter is probably sufficient for many conditions and, of course, will be cheaper to purchase than a purifier, but the choice is yours. In any event, the old adage "better safe than sorry" goes a long way when one of your most critical resources for survival (water) is unfit to drink.

Unfortunately, almost all in-line filter options count on things being normal in Urbania to function-ample water pressure being the most obvious. When the power grid is down, those who rely on grid power won't have the electricity to provide the pressure needed to run water through the pipes and filters in their homes. The best option is gravity, and there are several smaller gravity filters on the market. These usually consist of a cylinder in which nonpotable water is poured into the top and allowed to settle over time through the filtering membranes to the bottom where it's drained off and ready to drink. In my home, I don't need pressurized water entering the house, as I placed my water storage tank higher than the house so gravity could do the job. I had to special order a particular faucet valve, as almost all on the market require pressurized water lines to operate, but that was the only oddity required.

The membranes in all filters and purifiers will eventually clog and need cleaning or replacement. Because of this, it's wise to have an extra one around the house. Most replacement filters are not cheap, but the quality of the filter should be why you purchased the unit in the first place-not for how pretty it looks in the kitchen. The life of the membrane can be increased dramatically if nonpotable water is carefully filtered beforehand or at least allowed to settle, thereby eliminating all visible signs of particulate matter. If you're going to invest in a costly home-based water filter or purifier, you want it to concentrate on screening out harmful pathogens, chemicals, pollutants, and heavy metals, not the pond sc.u.m you were too lazy to screen out beforehand.

Hopeful Homemade Filters?

A few high-buck water filters claim to screen out almost anything undesirable. Some with reusable filters even claim to screen out radioactive radiation, but how to clean the radiation out of the filter remains a mystery. As with all things self-reliant, it's your job to research which water filter or purifier is best for your family. Don't buy cheap c.r.a.p, but at the same time take a careful, skeptical look at what manufacturers claim, even with the successful independent test data that a few have.

Military survival books and others usually include a homemade water filter that can be made with improvised items in the field. I have seen ill.u.s.trations using the leg(s) from a pair of pants, or two containers filled with various makes.h.i.+ft filtering materials. Some of these materials, such as carbon from a fire and sand, have been used for thousands of years for the same purpose.

So let's say you tie off the bottom of one or both legs of a pair of pants. Then you hang the pants and fill the void within the legs with layers of carbon, sand, and maybe polyester quilting, such as from a mattress pad. You pour water into the top of the pants and let it slowly gravity filter through the layered materials to drip into a waiting clean container below. Now what? Is the water safe to drink? Is it free from toxic chemicals, nitrates, pesticides, pollutants, and garbage that the other water disinfection methods won't eliminate? How can you visibly know for sure when dealing with contaminants that are invisible to the naked eye? When will the damp and dark filter material start to breed weird microorganisms that will then find their way into your filtered water?

I don't know anyone who has used any improvised filtering method who has had the resulting filtered water tested for the effectiveness of its methodology. Even if it were effective, there is no guarantee that the results would be identical the next time due to tremendous variables. If your family has no other option, by all means, improvise whatever you can to make your water safer to drink. But don't exclusively rely on the sketchy methods presented in many survival books for the safety of your family-especially when you have a choice!

Boiling Boiling is hands down the oldest means of disinfecting water. You'll need a container, the water in question, and a heat source. Although almost any fireproof container will work for conventional boiling, it helps to have a container that's suited for the job. A great multiple-use pot is two to four quarts in capacity, stainless steel, with a tight-fitting lid and bail (handle). I can't say enough about this simple yet masterful piece of gear. You can use it for many things: melting snow or ice for water, cooking dinner, making coffee, storing other survival gear, digging, etc. The next time you see a cable channel show doc.u.menting rare indigenous peoples hidden away in some remote jungle, check out what they have for "white man" gear. As the camera pans over the village, you'll probably spy steel machetes and a metal pot or two, traded for G.o.d knows what. The natives are masters of their environment and can make fire from sticks and rope from plants, but ahh, that steel edge and that s.h.i.+ny thing that can be put straight onto the fire without burning up. . .wow, now that's worth having. Are you laughing yet? Then try leaving all of your metal containers behind on your next camping trip-without bringing your prepackaged fancy camping food. Metal containers have truly revolutionized the world, just one reason why they appear on my "Really Cool, Gotta Have It, Multiple-Use Stuff" list in a future chapter.

The tight-fitting lid, or some improvised lid if one is not available, will save you fuel (as the water will boil quicker) and water (that would be lost through evaporation), both time-precious commodities. The bail or handle allows you to easily carry the pot or hang it from a branch or wire for improvised backyard or back alley business. Stainless steel is tough and safe to use long term for water or foods without the potential health risk of aluminum.

There's a lot of bogus garbage on the Internet and in books about how long to boil your water to make it safe to drink. Heat works exponentially over time to kill pathogens. Dairy farms don't boil milk, they pasteurize it. South of the border in Mexico, if you're unfortunate enough to get stuck drinking tap water, people in the know recommend that you at least drink water from the hot side of the faucet, after letting it cool down, of course. At sea level, water boils at 212 degrees F (100 degrees C). Even if you only have enough heat to get your water up to 180 degrees F (82 degrees C), spend the several minutes it takes to let it cool down, especially with a lid on the pot, and the heat will still kill all harmful pathogens. Armed with this knowledge, you can better understand why I'm not recommending that you boil the h.e.l.l out of your water for a half an hour or more. I explain more about the pasteurization process after this segment.

Disinfecting Water by Boiling To disinfect your water by boiling, fill the pot with water and put the lid on. If you don't have a lid, improvise something such as setting another pot on top. Put the pot over your heat source and simply bring it to a boil. This action alone will kill all pathogens, as some species die as the water is being heated up. If you live at elevation, or are dealing with truly sketchy water, let the water boil for a minute or two. When water boils, the level of oxygen dissolved in the water decreases, making it taste "flat." After the water cools, its taste can be improved by aerating it by pouring it back and forth between two clean containers or shaking it vigorously in a closed container with air s.p.a.ce.

After the water has boiled, turn off your heat source or take the pot off the fire and leave the lid on until it cools. Again, this continued "free heat" further guarantees that all nasty critters will die. When I hardboil eggs, I bring the water to a boil using another pot for a lid, shut of the heat, and let the eggs cook for several minutes in the scalding water. Over time, this saves a lot of fuel while achieving the same results. While some of you might be wondering when I'll get a life, harboring a conservation mind-set now will make the transition over to an emergency scenario with limited supplies that much easier and less scary. You'll also do the Earth a favor, and save money so you can work less at the job you hate. After the water has cooled sufficiently to drink, you're ready to hydrate. You can use nonpotable water for cooking as well when bringing any food source to a boil. There is no need to boil water, making it safe to drink, and then reboiling it again for eight minutes when cooking the survival pasta.

While boiling destroys the waterborne pathogens that we're concerned about, it takes effort to continually boil water for drinking, especially if all you have are smaller containers. For those living in hot climates, with no air conditioning because the grid collapsed, the last thing you will want to do is boil water. This procrastination will lead to further dehydration. Boiling requires a heat source, and heat sources need fuel to burn. Fuel-whether it's white gas, propane, or the busted-up kitchen table-might be hard to come by. The heat produced from burning fuel can also burn down your house, garage, or town without proper care as to where the heat source is created and managed, and having the know-how and tools to properly extinguish a blaze if things get out of control. In other words, boiling to disinfect water takes a lot of energy and responsibility, so the "drop, drop, fizz, fizz" convenience of the before-mentioned halogens should be a viable option for every household.

Pasteurization Contrary to poplar belief, it is not necessary to boil microbiologically contaminated water to make it safe to drink. I wrote about boiling because it does work, and may be more valid than other disinfection methods under certain circ.u.mstances. Also, some of you may feel super-paranoid about trusting the pasteurization process (if you're a milk drinker, get over it). Also, contrary to what many people believe, it is usually not necessary to distill water to make it safe to drink. I cover distillation next, as many of the water disinfection methods outlined herein, including pasteurization, will not help if water is brackish or chemically contaminated.

While sterilization kills all of the organisms in the water, pasteurization kills only those organisms that cause harm to humans. Pasteurization involves heating water to 149 degrees F (65 degrees C) for six to twenty minutes, or to a higher temperature for a shorter time. (Note: There was some contradiction in my research into how long the water being pasteurized must remain at the peak temperature of 149 degrees F. Whichever time you decide to use, six or twenty minutes, remember that you will not be swilling down water at that temperature anyway and that the water will continue to disinfect as it cools to a manageable drinking temperature.) Pasteurization kills all bacteria, viruses, and parasites, such as Giardia, cryptosporidium, endameba, the eggs of worms, s.h.i.+gella, cholera, salmonella bacteria and those that cause typhoid, the enterotoxogenic strains of E. Coli, Hepat.i.tis A, and rotavirus, to name a few.

A standard gla.s.s thermometer can be used to accurately measure when the correct temperature for pasteurization is achieved, as will another device available from many solar cooking businesses online or elsewhere. This option is the Water Pasteurization Indicator (WAPI). A prototype was first developed in 1988 by Dr. Fred Barrett, who worked for the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The present WAPI device was developed by Dale Andreatta and other graduate engineering students at the University of California at Berkeley. The device itself consists of a polycarbonate tube that's sealed at both ends. The inside of the tube is partially filled with a blue soybean fat that melts at 156 degrees F (69 degrees C). To use, the WAPI is placed inside the water container being treated with the fat end up. It's easy to tell when the water reaches 156 degrees F because the highly visible fat melts and runs to the bottom of the tube. The WAPI is durable and can be used many times, and can be placed in a solar oven, cook pot, or over a stove or fire. Heating water to the pasteurization temperature rather than the boiling point can reduce the energy required by up to 50 percent, saving fuel, time, and water.

Distillation While the above-mentioned water disinfection techniques work well at killing organic waterborne pathogens, they will do nothing to remove other potential containments from water such as heavy metals, salts, and chemicals. Distillation requires boiling water for many minutes and catching the resulting steam. The Seri Indians in northern Mexico desalinate seawater by boiling it in fifty-five-gallon drums. They wrap a wet, cool rag around a copper pipe exiting the container, which cools down the escaping steam that is then caught in a waiting container. This method is extremely fuel intensive, yet dying of dehydration trumps deforestation. Although tedious and a fuel hog, distillation gives survivors a much better chance of removing suspected dangerous contaminants from gathered water.

For small-scale water distillation, fill the largest cook pot you have halfway with nondisinfected water. As the water will need to be boiled for several minutes, there is no need to disinfect it beforehand. This cook pot should have a lid or one that's improvised that will conform to the following directions. The lid will be put on the pot upside down to allow for its resulting convexity to direct trapped steam, as it cools and turns to water droplets, toward the center of the lid. Before putting on the upside down lid, attach a smaller, heat-resistant container such as a cup or bowl to the lid's handle using wire or string so that it hangs right side up inside the pot without touching the water. This cup or bowl catches the directed water droplets from the lid. Boil the water for as many minutes as required to fill the attached cup or bowl. The resulting water that drips from the lid into the cup or bowl is distilled and should be free from waterborne pathogens and other contaminants. Although making a water distiller may be a pain in the b.u.t.t, once it's made, it can be used many times. Water can also be distilled after being disinfected by other methods for those who are dealing with extremely nasty water or who simply want added protection.

The SODIS Water Treatment Method:

Using Free Ultraviolet Radiation from the Sun

In 1991, research for the future SODIS water treatment method was undertaken by SANDEC (the Department of Water and Sanitation) at the EAWAG (Swiss Federal Inst.i.tute for Aquatic Science and Research). They conducted wide-ranging laboratory and field tests to develop and refine for general use the Solar Water Disinfection Process (SODIS). Their extensive testing revealed what some of us desert rats have suspected for years, that the ultraviolet radiation from intense sunlight s.h.i.+ning through a nonopaque container filled with nonpotable water will irradiate and kill undesirable waterborne pathogens, rendering the water safe to drink. In truth, the inspiration for using radiation from the sun to kill pathogens in nonpotable water started to develop in India as long ago as 2000 BC.

For the past decade, SANDEC has been providing information, technical data, and advice to local inst.i.tutions and more than twenty developing countries worldwide. Currently, the SODIS method is used to treat the daily drinking water of more than two million people around the world. Studies into the effectiveness of the SODIS program have shown a reduction in dysentery by 20 to 50 percent. For developing nations, further benefits were achieved by combining SODIS with hand-was.h.i.+ng programs.

You as a reader are aware by now that many hundreds of thousands of people die each year in developing counties from dysentery and disease caused directly or indirectly from contaminated water. My hat goes off to the people at SANDEC and EAWAG and many other organizations for their work in solar water disinfection; they are spending time and money to truly make a difference in our world, a difference that can be owned and operated by the people themselves, not corporations.

SODIS does not completely sterilize water of all critters, as it's primarily used to inactivate the pathogenic microorganisms that predominantly cause diarrhea. When the SODIS bottle is exposed to the sun, other harmless bacteria present in the water may keep growing. The SODIS method does not produce sterile water, as drinking water does not have to be sterile. Laboratory research has shown that many bacteria, viruses, and protozoa are eliminated including, but not limited to, the bacteria Escherichia coli (E.coli), Vibrio cholerae, Streptococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aerugenosa, s.h.i.+gella flexneri, Salmonella typhii, Salmonella enteriditis, and Salmonella paratyphi; the viruses bacteriophage f2, rotavirus, and encephalomyocarditis virus; the protozoas Giardia spp., and Cryptosporidium spp.; and the yeasts and molds Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Candida, and Geotrichum.

In a nutsh.e.l.l, the SODIS method involves filling up a clear, plastic, one- to two-quart container with nonpotable water. This bottle is then put into direct sunlight, on the roof of a house or elsewhere, for several hours until the ultraviolet radiation from the sunlight disinfects the water for drinking. While there are several specifics to the methodology to ensure success, and I write about them below, this data can also be found on the SODIS Web site at www.sodis.ch/.

Finding and Using Containers Compatible with the SODIS Method Concentrated sunlight (ultraviolet radiation) is the name of the game so stay away from containers with more than a one- or two-quart (or liter) capacity. Don't use large containers!

Ultraviolet radiation is reduced by increasing water depth. The more surface area-to-volume ratio you can achieve, in other words, the more of the sun's rays that can s.h.i.+ne through the smallest "thickness" of water, the better the method will work. Although clear soda bottles are not optimal for the SODIS method as they have a small area for exposure to sunlight, they are common and readily available in most towns and cities. (See comments on using plastic bags below.) Use only newer, clean, clear plastic containers with lids. These containers should be in good shape, not old, dinged, and scratched up ones that will block UV radiation. In like manner, opaque, tinted or colored plastics will block the necessary radiation from the sun and should not be used for SODIS. Older clear containers and colored plastics can be utilized, if clean, to store water that has already been treated in the newer clear bottles. All plastics break down and age when exposed to the sun, thereby reducing their transparency for maximum UV radiation. This breakdown transforms plastic materials into photoproducts. SODIS laboratory and field tests showed that the resulting photoproducts were generated only at the outer surface of the bottles. No photoproducts or additives (UV-stabilisators) were observed leaching into the water itself. For the length of most urban disasters, sun-weakened bottles won't be a problem, as the SODIS people recommend that you retire all containers used for SODIS after one year of continuous daily use.

Research carried out in Canada at Montreal's Brace Research Inst.i.tute (BRI), in collaboration with international colleagues, found that plastic bags are the best material for solar water disinfection. Heavy-duty freezer bags, as mentioned, will hold either a quart or a gallon of water sealed and will lie flat in comparison to soda bottles when full, thus exposing more water to greater concentrations of UV radiation. While this departs from the SODIS method of plastic bottles, plastic bags, although far less durable, may be a viable option for you. Any labeling printed on the bag should be turned down so as not to impede solar radiation. Be careful of hot, conductive surfaces as they may deform and melt the bags.

A note about gla.s.s: While clear gla.s.s bottles can be used, gla.s.s is thicker than plastic and will block some of the UV radiation and add time for the water to heat up. Gla.s.s containers are also heavier when empty and can be easily broken. Tests done with improvised large containers made with window gla.s.s did not work, as the gla.s.s did not transmit enough UV radiation. Many windows on the market have UV inhibitors to keep your couch and chairs from fading in the sun.

If possible, use plastic bottles made from PET (Poly Ethylene Terephtalate) instead of those made from PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride). PET bottles provide a greater transmittance of UV radiation as they contain less UV stabilizers, are readily available, and are cheap, durable, and contain fewer additives than bottles made from PVC. PET containers can be distinguished from PVC containers by burning a sample. PET will burn easily, the smell of the smoke is sweet, and the flame goes out slowly. PVC is difficult to burn and the smell of the smoke is strong and nasty. Bottles made with PVC will also have a blueish glimmer.

If you use bottles that are longer than they are wide (soda bottles, for example), be sure to lay the bottles down on their sides, thereby exposing maximal surface area to the sun while creating a minimal amount of water depth. If the bottles are laid onto a reflective/conductive surface such as metal corrugated roofing or some other like surface, the water temperature will be increased. Don't forget about the physics of convection, radiation, and conduction as learned from the shelter chapter. The key to SODIS being effective is maximum ultraviolet radiation, and to a lesser extent, heat. Try whatever types and combinations of reflectors, conductive surfaces, and protection against cooling breezes it takes to maximize radiation and heat into the water, especially in marginal solar gain locales or during the winter. People living in really hot climates should watch out that the bottles don't start to deform from too much heat. Desert ground temperatures exposed to summer sun, let alone metal, can reach more than 140 degrees F (60 degrees C). Each year, Phoenix, Arizona, has several contests where gung-ho partic.i.p.ants see who can cook an egg on the pavement the quickest. Experiment in your locality to see what works.

When the bottle(s) are filled with water, place them on a surface that will get full sun during the hours needed for treatment. Avoid areas that will become partially shaded at some point during the day. Southern exposure niches for the top half of the planet work well at having the most available suns.h.i.+ne during the winter months. Protect the bottles from cooler convective breezes and enhance reflective radiation if necessary. Do NOT place the bottles on flammable materials such as gra.s.s, cloth, straw, or hay, thinking you'll insulate the bottle from heat loss. The water in clear bottles can condense the sun's rays like a magnifying gla.s.s and quickly set fire to combustible surfaces.

What Type of Water Can I Treat with SODIS?

Any microbiologically contaminated water, even water that may have contacted human feces, is suitable for SODIS. The entire purpose of SODIS is to improve the microbiological quality of water through ultraviolet radiation and heat from the sun.

IMPORTANT! Any suspended particulate matter (turbidity or "pond sc.u.m") in the water you gather will impede the ability for sunlight to fully penetrate the water in the bottle, thereby reducing UV irradiation and how hot it will get. Water put into treatment bottles should be as clear as possible. Filter the water through coffee filters, a clean cloth, or a bandana to remove any floaters and particulate matter from the water. Nonpotable water can also be left to sit for several hours in a larger container to let particulate matter sink to the bottom and/or be skimmed off the top. On the SODIS Web site, they offer a test that will tell you if the water has too much turbidity to be used without filtering first. They recommend you fill the bottle with the water in question and put the bottle on top of a piece of paper with words that have letters about 3/4 inch high (1.5 centimeters). Next, with the lid off, look down through the bottle to the paper at the bottom and see if you can read the words through the water. If you can, the water is ready to treat with no need for filtering. Water treated with SODIS also tastes good, as oxygen levels within the water are not reduced, as they are with boiled water. After the water has been treated, don't make the mistake of pouring it into "dirty" containers that will recontaminate the water!

Oxygen is important for killing waterborne pathogens, as sunlight forms highly reactive molecules such as free radical oxygen and hydrogen peroxide that help in their destruction. The earlier SODIS method involved shaking the partially filled bottle vigorously to aerate the water before filling the bottle fully and setting it in the sun. Further research has determined that under normal conditions, water from creeks, wells, ponds, and rivers contain more than three milligrams of oxygen per quart, which is more than sufficient to get the job done without further aeration.

Water that has been contaminated with chemicals or pesticides should not be used, as solar radiation will do nothing to remove the contaminants. For this problem refer back to filtration and distillation.

Optimal Climate and Weather for SODIS The SODIS method requires UV radiation and elevated temperatures to work. For the "techies," sunlight with wavelengths of 315400 nanometers (nm) on the ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic spectrum are most effective at destroying bacteria (of which colorless plastic or gla.s.s excel at transmitting). To treat your water, expose the bottles to direct sunlight for at least six hours if the sky is cloud free and totally clear, to up to 50 percent cloud cover. Although not recommended by SODIS, if the sky is "50 percent" cloudy, I would increase the time that the bottles sit by an hour or two or more (why not?). If the sky has 100 percent cloud cover, UV intensity is cut to 30 percent or less and the bottles should be exposed to the "sun" for two consecutive days. During days of continuous rain, don't use SODIS, as it's not reliable. But who cares, get out there and gather the rain! In regard to the water temperature, the SODIS people claim that if the water reaches at least 122 degrees F (50 degrees C) for one hour it's pasteurized and ready to drink. The locations where SODIS is most effective lie between the lat.i.tudes of 15N/ S and 35N/ S, the latter being the best-areas of semiarid land with high solar radiation, limited cloud cover and rain, and 3000 hours of suns.h.i.+ne per year on average. The second best location is between the equator and lat.i.tude 15N/ S.

SODIS does have a few limitations. It doesn't work for treating large amounts of water in one container and it requires suitable weather conditions (high solar radiation) for effectiveness. While you folks in Was.h.i.+ngton state and Maine might be out of luck, you all have an abundance of firewood, so boil away. People in desert regions oftentimes lack the needed fuel resources, so it all works out in the end.

Disinfecting Your Family's Water: One Super Sacred Responsibility No water disinfection method is perfect. With all disinfection methods, always err on the side of being conservative. The ten minutes you refused to wait for your water to properly disinfect, or got lazy with your boiling, could cost you days or weeks of unnecessary time on and around the toilet. If you're in the middle of disinfecting water with halogens, get distracted from the job, and when you return can't remember which containers are safe to drink, disinfect the entire batch over again. You might invent some way to clearly mark the containers that have been disinfected with colored tape, string, or another method. The person or persons responsible for disinfecting the family's water should take their job very seriously. Screw up with this one, especially with limited medical help after a crisis, and you could help slowly kill a loved one with dysentery.

Finding Emergency Water in an Urban/Suburban Setting "THESE ARE UGLY DECISIONS, BUT YOU EITHER DRINK WATER OR YOU DIE.".

-PETER BEATTIE, PREMIER OF QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA, ANNOUNCING THAT DUE TO THE COUNTRY'S WORST DROUGHT ON RECORD, THE STATE WOULD START USING DRINKING WATER CONTAINING RECYCLED SEWAGE WATER If your home front runs dry, there are several places to look for water in an urban setting. Now that you know how to disinfect the stuff, you must broaden your views about drinking water that, before the disaster happened, you wouldn't have gone swimming in, let alone drink. A point that needs to be clarified about most of the disinfection methods we have talked about so far is that they are for killing organic, living, waterborne pathogens. Contaminants from chemicals and pollutants will be very common in urban and suburban water sources, and boiling, iodine, and chlorine bleach will not remove them! If ingested, any of these contaminants can make you sick, or in concentration, kill you. Only commercial filters specifically stating that they deal with chemical contaminates and/or the distillation method give you a shot at screening out these unwanted particles.

Explore your alternative water options now. The next time you walk, bike, or drive through your neighborhood, keep your eyes open as to what you could use as an emergency water resource. Keep in mind that post-disaster, "public" water resources will become hot spots and magnets for others who may also have run out of water. History has proved that human nature can get ugly during times of crisis so find as many water options as you can. Never put all of your self-reliance eggs into one basket. Remember that water is very heavy at 8.3 pounds per gallon, and moving it around by hand if vehicles are benched due to gas shortages will be a challenge.

The following list highlights water options you may have in your area. I have beaten you over the head for several pages about how important water is to your survival. The ultimate responsibility lies with you about "reconning" or exploring and locating safe water options that you and your family might utilize during troubled times.

Streams Ahhh, running water! Many of you reading this chapter have been shaking your head in wonder at my fanatical stance on water as you have it running everywhere within your neighborhood. Good for you, for you are truly blessed. Being from the high desert, I can only dream of the luxury you have, but I've seen pictures in magazines.

Streams vary in size from a trickle to a current that would wash away your SUV. If you have a stream winding its way through your community, find out where it starts. How many miles downstream are you from the source? And what exactly, or who, is upstream? Find out now if there's a major (or minor) chemical plant or chicken farm along its banks. During the Bosnian and Croatian conflict, families fled their homes to camp at nearby mountain streams. The families upstream used the stream for everything, including going to the bathroom. Families downstream became ill with dysentery and many babies and young children died as a result of poor sanitation practices. With or without p.o.o.p in the water, the common a.s.sumption that water running briskly over rocks and aquatic plants disinfects itself is utter nonsense.

After reading this book, you will be worlds ahead of the general populace about what is needed to survive a disaster and the responsibility this means to the natural world. But you mustn't a.s.sume that the rest of the population won't be s.h.i.+tting in the stream above you; I tell you now that they will be. Our disinfection techniques can deal with those pathogens, but they can't deal with the gene pool dropout who dumps weed killer into the stream in order to create an empty container. Unfortunately, you are at the mercy of your neighbors when dealing with these types of water supplies. Just because the water looks clean doesn't mean that it is. I apologize that I have no way of telling you how to a.s.sess the quality of your water from chemicals or pollutants other than many heavily polluted urban streams will have obvious, nasty-looking, multicolored water. Streams and rivers are commonly used as dumping places fostered by our out-of-sight, out-of-mind mentality regarding sanitation. After an extreme disaster, you may see anything and everything floating past your home, dead bodies and all.

Know your stream, and ultimately, your neighbors. For those of you who have been active in your community protecting above-ground water resources and enjoying their beauty, your efforts just may save your life. Treat all above-ground water sources with caution, no matter how pure they seem, and disinfect accordingly. That small, picturesque Rocky Mountain stream running through property where no one lives above you can still have a dead cow or elk decomposing in the middle of it. If you feel good about using your stream for drinking water, follow the before-mentioned water disinfection techniques and keep hydrated.

Rivers As rivers are basically streams on steroids, and travel farther through more variables of people and places, they are susceptible to more contaminants. While some may argue that the larger volume of water compensates for this-and they're partially correct, remember the "small" dead bird in my "large" water tank?-there is no way to accurately a.s.sess this for the common homeowner. Know your river(s), use common sense when gathering water from it, and disinfect the water accordingly.

A SPECIAL CAUTION ABOUT "HUMAN-MADE" LAKES AND PONDS.

I'm not certain why, but man-made ponds are very common in the Southwest desert, especially around golf courses and more affluent communities. Many urban planners, and I use the term "planner" loosely, should be hung by their toes for using scarce water resources for the t.i.tillation of their pocketbooks and for the residents who should have remained in Minnesota if seeing surface water is what they crave. These pretend ponds are typically ringed with unsustainable, water-hogging vegetation from gra.s.s to weeping willow trees that are unsuited to the climate and ground conditions as well. As these plants would die within weeks without continuous care, cared for they are, and volumes of chemical fertilizers and toxic pesticides are used to keep things looking electric green. The problem this presents should be obvious, as rain runoff and leaching flush these toxins directly and indirectly into the fake pond. If an insane developer's wet dream is on your family's emergency water hit list, pay close attention to the factors just discussed. Golf courses are notorious for dumping extreme amounts of fertilizers and pesticides onto the greens so be forewarned. Although potentially pricey, many towns have water-testing services. Do your homework, make your decision, and disinfect the water the best that you can.

Natural Lakes and Ponds Many communities have lakes and ponds within their midst, whether natural or artificial. There are no natural lakes within the entire state of Arizona, and yet we have several "lakes" as the result of the damming of natural rivers and streams, Lake Powell being one of the most ma.s.sive. If naturally produced, lakes and ponds usually sp.a.w.n from underground springs, rain runoff, or snowmelt. Where the water comes from and what type of earth it's sitting on will give you general clues as to its potability. There are a few ponds in the West that are contaminated with naturally occurring a.r.s.enic from the ground. They're not difficult to spot as they have absolutely no life growing within them, and frequently sport the bones of small mammals on their banks who have attempted to use the toxic tea to slake their thirst.

Due to the fact that the water in lakes and ponds is somewhat stagnant, especially in smaller ponds, the water may have some type of nitrate contamination or be corrupted by organic and inorganic substances from land erosion, the disintegration of minerals, rotting vegetation, and earthborne biological pathogens, as well as the usual industrial chemical pollutants, and microorganisms from animal and human waste. It all depends on the history of your pond or lake, so know the water source as accurately as you can.

Lakes and ponds are not typically used as dumps, as are streams and rivers, because there is no current to take away the offending idiots' refuse, but don't a.s.sume there's not something weird under the water ten feet from the bank. No matter how innocent the water looks, disinfect all water for human consumption via the methods described earlier in this chapter.

Fountains, Goldfish Ponds, Wis.h.i.+ng Wells, and Other In-town Water Oddities Urban areas are blessed with many unlikely places to find water. Simply make a mental note of where yours are located, decide whether they would be a likely candidate for consumption after disinfecting, and enjoy.

Random Water Spigots As a troubled and trashy teen I lived on city streets for a spell and finding water proved to be a challenge. I quickly learned that most urban and suburban buildings have water spigots that can be found at some point around their perimeter. Gas stations, office buildings, department stores, and dozens of other buildings and their owners need water to wash down loading docks, clean supplies and equipment, water ornamental vegetation, etc. Several of these outdoor faucets have their handles removed, as the owners are tired of vagrants using their turf as a watering hole. Some of these functionless faucets simply require coaxing from a pair of pliers and you're back in business. Keep in mind that you're technically taking water from someone else, so be discreet, use caution, and watch your back. Since almost all of these spigots are hooked up to munic.i.p.al water supplies, they should not be depended upon during or after a crisis. CAUTION: The water from some of these spigots may not be potable (or at least that's what you may be told when you wish to fill up a canteen). As with all things improvised, if you find yourself flying by the seat of your pants, a.s.sess the priority of your needs while minimizing damaging variables, and keep your att.i.tude positive.

Harvesting Rain I love collecting rain, especially here in the desert. Harvesting rain, although fairly simple at first glance, is the subject of many books. One can harvest rain by creating swales or "speed b.u.mps" directly on the ground for catching rain runoff for percolation into the earth, thereby creating a water bank for thirsty plants, or harvest rain directly from rooftops, among other places. At minimum, many people in arid parts of the country choose to put a collection container under a gutter or divert gutter water onto needy vegetation.

When catching rain from conventional rooftops, many factors will influence its potability including, but not limited to, the type and cleanliness of the gathering surface, airborne contaminants, and the storage container it's collected in. Certain toxic materials used for roofing may wash off into the storage tank during rainfall. Leaves, dust, bugs, and bird, mouse and rat p.o.o.p, among other garbage present on your roof, will also wash off into your storage container if roof washers are not employed (various types of roof washers divert the first five or ten gallons of rain into a separate container allowing the roof to wash off with the first part of the rain.) Extreme contaminants in the air (remember toxic rain?) can also be present that would influence your caught water's potability. Of course the most extreme would be radioactive fallout. As already discussed, water must also be stored in the proper container.

I had a client from Ohio who claimed his entire neighborhood caught water from conventional, asphalt-s.h.i.+ngled rooftops, which funneled rain into aboveground cisterns hidden by shrubbery. He caught the rain, which supplied all of his family's needs and pumped it directly into his home, using no filters whatsoever-and the man was a physician. Ironically, your home's roof might supply you with all of the emergency water your family would need during a crisis. Check what type of roofing your house has and research whether it's recommended as a safe surface for gathering water for human consumption. Remember the above snippet from the doctor who took my course and realize that companies will be conservative with what they tell you for fear of lawsuits. If push comes to shove, short-term contaminants in water do not override dying of dehydration.

To figure out how many gallons of rain you could collect from your roof in a year, first measure the outside dimensions, or true "footprint," of your roof to determine its surface area. Heavily sloping roofs don't matter, as they catch no more rain than flat roofs. Next, find out what the annual rainfall is for your area-my high desert is twelve inches, which we will use in this example. To find the gallons per cubic foot, we'll take the above information and multiply it by 7.48. The formula to use is as follows: Surface area, or footprint, of gathering surface annual rainfall 7.48 = gallons of rain (on average) collected per year.

Let's try a sample equation using a hypothetical twenty-by-forty-foot roof (800 total square feet) in an area with twelve inches (one foot) of annual rainfall: 800 1 7.48 = 5,984 gallons per year.

If you get eighteen inches per year, multiply by 1.5, if you get twenty-four inches of rain per year, multiply by two, and so on.

Because some of the rain will be lost to overflowing gutters, wind, evaporation, and seepage into the roofing material itself (with the exception of metal roofs) multiply the above number by 0.95.

5,984 gallons 0.95 = 5,684 gallons of rain per year.

Keep in mind this tremendous amount of water was gathered upon a very small surface area using annual rainfall calculations from the desert! Take the time to do the math for your roof's footprint, coupled with your annual rainfall, and you will be astounded at the number of gallons you could gather from your home. With a little bit of effort, this free, life-giving substance can be directed into large-capacity water tanks for the enjoyment, and survival, of your family.

Some people who lack conventional roofing materials because of their lifestyle choice (teepees, wall tents, etc.) use other nonpermeable barriers to collect rain. Tarps and sheets of plastic can be suspended above the ground to catch large volumes of water that is then directed into waiting containers or garden areas. I once collected more than forty gallons of rainwater in one storm by finding a natural hole in the ground that was located within a small wash (arroyo), which I then lined with plastic. Grommeted tarps are much more durable and easier to hang than plastic sheets but any nontoxic, nonpermeable barrier is worth considering for catching and holding moisture.

Melting Snow and Ice Depending on where you live and the time of year, melting snow and ice can provide emergency water for your tribe. For the Uruguayan rugby team that crash-landed high in the Andes Mountains in the 1970s, their only option for water during their seventy-plus day forced stay came from ice and snow. They created this water daily by placing highly reflective metal panels salvaged from the downed aircraft at a slight angle facing the sun. The panels heated up from the sun's rays and were dusted with snow throughout the day, which melted and funneled down to waiting containers.

Newly fallen snow contains more than 90 percent air, thus it contains less water than snow that has been around for a few days or weeks. This high air content and minerals present within the snow are the main reasons people complain about bad-tasting water and scorched pans when trying to melt snow. To effectively melt snow, start with a small amount in your metal container before you put it on the heat source. As this amount melts, add a bit more snow. The more water you have in the pot, the more snow you can add as it will dissolve the snow. I have tried packing a pot full of snow and putting it on the wood stove, but it takes a lot longer for the snow to melt, thus using more fuel, and it can scorch the bottom of the pot. If you have water to spare, put an inch or so in the pot before adding any snow and let it heat up, as this will a.s.sist in melting the snow when it's added. If you feel your snow turned to water is unsafe to drink, simply boil it per the disinfection section. Follow the same strategy for melting ice, which will contain much more water value than snow. Gather snow and ice from clean areas and don't eat yellow snow.