The Measurement of Intelligence Part 39

Our tests of 279 "at age" children between 12 and 15 years reveal the surprising fact that the test as here used and scored is not pa.s.sed by much over half of the children of any age in the grades below the high-school age. Of the high-school pupils 19 per cent failed to pa.s.s, 21 per cent of ordinarily successful business men (!), and 27 per cent of Knollin's unemployed men testing up to the "average adult" level. To find average intelligence cutting such a sorry figure raises the question whether the ancient definition of man as "the rational animal"

is justified by the facts. The truth is, _average_ intelligence does not do a great deal of abstract, logical reasoning, and the little it does is done usually under the whip of necessity.

At first thought these problems will doubtless appear to the reader to be mere tests of schooling. It is true, of course, that in solving them the subject makes use of knowledge which is ordinarily obtained in school; but this knowledge (that is, knowledge of reading and of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) is possessed by practically all adults who are not feeble-minded, and by many who are.

Success, therefore, depends upon the ability to apply this knowledge readily and accurately to the problems given--precisely the kind of ability in which a deficiency cannot be made good by school training. We can teach even morons how to read problems and how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide with a fair degree of accuracy; the trouble comes when they try to decide which of these processes the problem calls for.

This may require intelligence of high or low order, according to the difficulty of the problem. As for the present test, we have shown that almost totally unschooled men of "average adult" intelligence pa.s.s this test as frequently as high-school seniors of the same mental level.

XIV, 6. REVERSING HANDS OF CLOCK

PROCEDURE. Say to the subject: "_Suppose it is six twenty-two o'clock, that is, twenty-two minutes after six; can you see in your mind where the large hand would be, and where the small hand would be?_" Subjects of 12- to 14-year intelligence practically always answer this in the affirmative. Then continue: "_Now, suppose the two hands of the clock were to trade places, so that the large hand takes the place where the small hand was, and the small hand takes the place where the large hand was. What time would it then be?_"

Repeat the test with the hands at 8.10 (10 minutes after 8), and again with the hands at 2.46 (14 minutes before 3).

The subject is not allowed to look at a clock or watch, or to aid himself by drawing, but must work out the problem mentally. As a rule the answer is given within a few seconds or not at all. If an answer is not forthcoming within two minutes the score is failure.

SCORING. The test is pa.s.sed if _two of the three_ problems are solved within the following range of accuracy: the first solution is considered correct if the answer falls between 4.30 and 4.35, inclusive; the second if the answer falls between 1.40 and 1.45, and the third if the answer falls between 9.10 and 9.15.

REMARKS. It appears that success in the test chiefly depends upon voluntary control over constructive visual imagery. Weakness of visual imagery may account for the failure of a considerable percentage of adults to pa.s.s the test. Visual imagery, however, is not absolutely necessary to success. One 8-year-old prodigy, who had 12-year intelligence, arrived in forty seconds at a strictly mathematical solution for the second problem, as follows: "If it is 2.46, and the hands trade places, then the little hand has gone about one fourth of the distance from 9 o'clock to 10 o'clock. One fourth of 60 minutes is 15 minutes, and so the time would be 15 minutes after 9 o'clock." Such a solution is certainly possible by the use of verbal imagery of any type.

The test shows a high correlation with mental age, but more than most others it is subject to the influence of cribbing. For this reason, other positions of the clock hands should be tried out for the purpose of finding subst.i.tute experiments of equal difficulty. Until such experiments have been made, it will be necessary to confine the experiment to the three positions here presented.

Schooling seems to have no influence whatever on the percentage of pa.s.ses.

This test was first used by Binet in 1905, but was not included in either the 1908 or 1911 series. G.o.ddard and Kuhlmann both include the test in their revisions, placing it in year XV. They give only two problems (our _a_ and _c_) and require that both be answered correctly.

Neither G.o.ddard nor Kuhlmann, however, indicates the degree of error permitted.

Something depends upon original position of the hands. Binet used 6.20 and 2.46. For some reason the 2.46 arrangement is much more difficult than either 8.10 or 6.22, yielding almost twice as many failures as either of the other positions.

XIV, ALTERNATIVE TESTS: REPEATING SEVEN DIGITS

This time, as in year X, only two series are given, one of which must be repeated without error. The two series are: 2-1-8-3-4-3-9 and 9-7-2-8-4-7-5. Note that in none of the tests of repeating digits is it permissible to warn the subject of the number to be given.

REMARKS. Binet originally placed this test in year XII, giving three trials, but later moved it to year XV. G.o.ddard and Kuhlmann retain it in year XII. Our data show that when three trials are given the test is too easy for year XIV, but that it fits this age when only two trials are allowed; that after the age of 12 or 14 years memory for relatively meaningless material, like digits or nonsense syllables, improves but little; and that above this level it does not correlate very closely with intelligence.

CHAPTER XIX

INSTRUCTIONS FOR "AVERAGE ADULT"

AVERAGE ADULT, 1: VOCABULARY (SIXTY-FIVE DEFINITIONS, 11,700 WORDS)

PROCEDURE and SCORING, as in previous vocabulary tests.[76] At the average adult level sixty-five words should be correctly defined.

[76] See VIII, 6.

AVERAGE ADULT, 2: INTERPRETATION OF FABLES (SCORE 8)

PROCEDURE. As in year XII, test 6. Use the same fables.

SCORING. The method of scoring is the same as for XII, but the total score must be 8 points to satisfy the requirements at this level.

REMARKS. For discussion of test, see XII, 5.

AVERAGE ADULT, 3: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ABSTRACT TERMS

PROCEDURE. Say: _What is the difference between_:--

(a) _Laziness and idleness?_ (b) _Evolution and revolution?_ (c) _Poverty and misery?_ (d) _Character and reputation?_

SCORING. _Three correct contrasting definitions out of four_ are necessary for a pa.s.s. It is not sufficient merely to give a correct meaning for each word of a pair; the subject must point out a difference between the two words so as to make a real contrast. For example, if the subject defines _evolution_ as a "growth" or "gradual change," and _revolution_ as the turning of a wheel on its axis, the experimenter should say: "_Yes, but I want you to tell me the difference between evolution and revolution._" If the contrast is not then forthcoming the response is marked _minus_.

The following are sample definitions which may be considered acceptable:--

(a) _Laziness and idleness._ "It is laziness if you won't work, and idleness if you are willing to work but haven't any job." "Lots of men are idle who are not lazy and would like to work if they had something to do." "Laziness means you don't want to work; idleness means you are not doing anything just now." "Idle people may be lazy, or they may just happen to be out of a job." "It is laziness when you don't like to work, and idleness when you are not working." "An idle person might be willing to work; a lazy man won't work." "Laziness comes from within; idleness may be forced upon one." "Laziness is aversion to activity; idleness is simply the state of inactivity."

"Laziness is idleness from choice or preference; idleness means doing nothing."

The essential contrast, accordingly, is that _laziness refers to unwillingness to work; idleness to the mere fact of inactivity_.

This contrast must be expressed, however clumsily.

(b) _Evolution and revolution._ "Evolution is a gradual change; revolution is a sudden change." "Evolution is natural development; revolution is sudden upheaval." "Evolution means an unfolding or development; revolution means a complete upsetting of everything." "Evolution is the gradual development of a country or government; revolution is a quick change of government." "Evolution takes place by natural force; a revolution is caused by an outside force." "Evolution is growth; revolution is a quick change from existing conditions."

"Evolution is a natural change; revolution is a violent change." "Evolution is growth step by step; revolution is more sudden and radical in its action." "Evolution is a change brought about by peaceful development, while revolution is brought about by an uprising."

The essential distinction, accordingly, is that _evolution means a gradual, natural, or slow change, while revolution means a sudden, forced, or violent change_. Non-contrasting definitions, even when the individual terms are defined correctly, are not satisfactory.

(c) _Poverty and misery._ "Poverty is when you are poor; misery means suffering." "Only the poor are in poverty, but everybody can be miserable." "Poverty is the lowest stage of poorness; misery means pain." "The poor are not always miserable, and the rich are miserable sometimes." "Poverty means to be in want; misery comes from any kind of suffering or anguish." "The poor are in poverty; the sick are in misery."

"Poverty is the condition of being very poor financially; misery is a feeling which any cla.s.s of people can have." "One who is poor is in poverty; one who is wretched or doesn't enjoy life is in misery." "Poverty comes from lack of money; misery, from lack of happiness or comfort." "Misery means distress. It can come from poverty or many other things."

(d) _Character and reputation._ "Character is what you are; reputation is what people say about you." "You have character if you are honest; but you might be honest and still have a bad reputation among people who misjudge you." "Character is your real self; reputation is the opinion people have about you."

"Your character depends upon yourself; reputation depends on what others think of you." "Character means your real morals; reputation is the way you are known in the world." "A man has a good character if he would not do evil; but a man may have a good reputation and still have a bad character."

A little practice and a good deal of discrimination are necessary for the correct grading of responses to this test. Subjects are often so clumsy in expression that their responses are anything but clear. It is then necessary to ask them to explain what they mean. Further questioning, however, is not permissible. For uniformity in scoring it is necessary to bear in mind that the definitions given must, in order to be satisfactory, express the essential distinction between the two words.

REMARKS. What we have said regarding the psychological significance of test 2, year XII, applies equally well here. The test on the whole is a valuable one. Our statistics show that it is not, as some critics have thought, mainly a test of schooling.

The main criticism to be made is that it imposes a somewhat difficult task upon the power of language expression. For this reason it is necessary in scoring to disregard clumsiness of expression and to look only to the essential correctness or incorrectness of the thought.

This test first appeared in year XIII of Binet's 1908 scale. The terms used were "happiness and honor"; "evolution and revolution"; "event and advent"; "poverty and misery"; "pride and pretension." In the 1911 revision, "happiness and honor" and "pride and pretension" were dropped, and the other three pairs were moved up to the adult group, two out of three successes being required for a pa.s.s. Kuhlmann places it in year XV, using "happiness and honor" instead of our "character and reputation," and requires three successes out of five.

AVERAGE ADULT, 4: PROBLEM OF THE ENCLOSED BOXES

PROCEDURE. Show the subject a cardboard box about one inch on a side.

Say: "_You see this box; it has two smaller boxes inside of it, and each one of the smaller boxes contains a little tiny box. How many boxes are there altogether, counting the big one?_" To be sure that the subject understands repeat the statement of the problem: "_First the large box, then two smaller ones, and each of the smaller ones contains a little tiny box._"