Twentieth Century Inventions Part 6

For the ploughing of a field by the electric plough a cable will be required capable of being stretched along one side of the area to be worked. On this will run loosely a link or wheel connected with another wire wound upon a drum carried on the plough and paid out as the latter proceeds across the field. For different grades of land, of course, different modes of working are advisable, the ordinary plough of a multifurrow pattern, with stump-jumping springs or weights, being used for land which is not too heavy or clayey; a disc plough or harrow being applicable to light, well-worked ground; and the mechanical spade or fork-digger--reciprocating in its motion very much like the rock-drill--having its special sphere of usefulness in wet and heavy land. In any case a wide, gripping wheel is required in front to carry the machine forward and to turn it on reaching the end of the furrow. The wire-wound drum is actuated by a spring which tends to keep it constantly wound up, and when the plough has turned and is heading again towards the cable at the side of the field, this drum automatically winds up the wire. So also when each pair of furrows has been completed, the supply-wire is automatically s.h.i.+fted along upon the fixed cable to a position suitable for the next pair.

Not only in the working, but also in the manuring, of the soil the electric current will play an important part in the revolution in agriculture. The fixing of the nitrogen from the atmosphere in order to form nitrates available as manure depends, from the physical point of view, upon the creation of a sufficient heat to set fire to it. The economic bearings of this fact upon the future of agriculture, especially in its relation to wheat-growing, seemed so important to Sir William Crookes that he made the subject the princ.i.p.al topic of his Presidential Address before the British a.s.sociation in 1898.

The feasibility of the electrical mode of fixing atmospheric nitrogen for plant-food has been demonstrated by eminent electricians, the famous Hungarian inventor, Nikola Tesla, being among the foremost. The electric furnace is just as readily applicable for forcing the combination of an intractable element, such as nitrogen, with other materials suitable for forming a manurial base, as it is for making calcium carbide by bringing about the union of two such unsociable const.i.tuents as lime and carbon.

Cheap power is, in this view, the great essential for economically enriching the soil, as well as for turning it over and preparing it for the reception of seed. Nor is the fact a matter of slight importance that this power is specially demanded for the production of an electric current for heating purposes, because the transmission of such a current over long distances to the places at which the manurial product is required will save the cost of much transport of heavy material.

The agricultural chemist and the microbiologist of the latter end of the nineteenth century have laid considerable stress upon the prospects of using the minute organisms which attach themselves to the roots of some plants--particularly those of the leguminaceae--as the means of fixing the nitrogen of the atmosphere, and rendering it available for the plant-food of cereals which are not endowed with the faculty of encouraging those bacteria which fix nitrogen. High hopes have been based upon the prospects of inoculating the soil over wide areas of land with small quant.i.ties of sandy loam, taken from patches cultivated for leguminous plants which have been permitted to run to seed, thus multiplying the nitrogen-fixing bacteria enormously. The main idea has been to encourage the rapid production of these minute organisms in places where they may be specially useful, but in which they do not find a particularly congenial breeding ground.

The hope that any striking revolution may be brought about in the practice of agriculture by a device of this kind must be viewed in the light of the fact that, while the scientists of the nineteenth century have demonstrated, partially at least, the true reason for the beneficial effects of growing leguminous plants upon soil intended to be afterwards laid down in cereals, they were not by any means the first to observe the fact that such benefits accrued from the practice indicated. Several references in the writings of ancient Greek and Latin poets prove definitely that the good results of a rotation of crops, regulated by the introduction of leguminous plants at certain stages, were empirically understood. In that more primitive process of reasoning which proceeds upon the a.s.sumption _post hoc, ergo propter hoc_, the ancient agriculturist was a past-master, and the chance of gleaning something valuable from the field of common observation over which he has trod is not very great.

Modern improvements in agriculture will probably be, in the main, such as are based upon fundamental processes unknown to the ancients. By the word "processes" it is intended to indicate not those methods the scientific reasons for which were understood--for these in ancient times were very few--but simply those which from long experience were noticed to be beneficial. Good husbandry was in olden times clearly understood to include the practice of the rotation of crops, and the beneficial results to be expected from the introduction of those crops which are now discovered to act as hosts to the microbes which fix atmospheric nitrogen were not only observed, but insisted upon.

From a scientific point of view this concurrence of the results of ancient and of modern observation may only serve to render the bacteriology of the soil more interesting; but, from the standpoint of an estimate of the practical openings for agriculture improvements in the near future, it greatly dwarfs the prospect of any epoch-making change actually founded upon the principle of the rotation of crops.

It is, indeed, conceivable that fresh light on the life habits of the minute organisms of the soil may lead to practical results quite new; but hardly any such light is yet within the inventor's field of vision.

This view of the limited prospects of practical microbiology for the fixing of nitrogen in plant-food was corroborated by Sir William Crookes in the Presidential Address already cited. He said that "practice has for a very long time been ahead of science in respect of this department of husbandry". For ages what is known as the four course rotation had been practised, the crops following one another in this order--turnips, barley, clover and wheat--a sequence which was popular more than two thousand years ago. His summing up of the position was to the effect that "our present knowledge leads to the conclusion that the much more frequent growth of clover on the same land, even with successful microbe-seeding and proper mineral supplies, would be attended with uncertainties and difficulties, because the land soon becomes what is called clover-sick, and turns barren".

In regard to any practical application of microbe-seeding, the farmers of the United Kingdom at the end of the nineteenth century had not, in the opinion of this eminent chemist, reached even the experimental stage, although on the Continent there had been some extension of microbe cultivation. To this it may fairly be added that some of the attention attracted to the subject on the Continent has been due to the natural tendency of the German mind to discover fine differences between things which are not radically distinct. Under the t.i.tle of "microbe-cultivation" the long-familiar practice of the rotation of crops may to some continental enthusiasts seem to be quite an innovation!

In the electrical manures-factory the operations will be simply an enlargement of laboratory experiments which have been familiar to the chemist for many years. Moist air, kept damp by steam, is traversed by strong electric sparks from an induction coil inside of a bottle or other liquor-tight receiver, and in a short time it is found that in the bottom of this receptacle a liquid has acc.u.mulated which, on being tested, proves to be nitric acid. There is also present a small quant.i.ty of ammonia from the atmosphere. Nitrate of ammonia thus formed would in itself be a manure; but, of course, on the large scale other nitrates will be formed by mixing the acid with cheap alkalies which are abundant in nature, soda from common salt, and lime from limestone.

In this process the excessive heat of the electric discharge really raises the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere to a point of temperature at which chemical union is forced; or, in other words, the nitrogen is compelled to burn and to join in chemical combination with the oxygen with which formerly it was only in mechanical mixture. When nitrogen is burning, its flame is not in itself hot enough to ignite contiguous volumes of the same element;--otherwise indeed our atmosphere, after a discharge of lightning, would burn itself out!--but the continuance of an electric discharge forces into combination just a proportionate quant.i.ty of nitrogen. Practically, therefore, manure in the future will mean electricity, and therefore power; so that cheap sources of energy are of the greatest importance to the farmer.

With dynamos driven by steam-engines, the price of electrically-manufactured nitrate of soda would, according to the estimate of Sir William Crookes, be 26 per ton, but at Niagara, where water power is very cheap, not more than 5 per ton. Thus it will be seen that the cheapness of power due to the presence of the waterfall makes such a difference in the economic aspects of the problem of the electrical manufacture of manurial nitrates as to reduce the price to less than one-fifth! It must be remembered that at the close of the nineteenth century the electric installation at Niagara is by very many persons looked upon as being in itself in the nature of an experiment, but at any rate there seems to be no room for doubt that the cost of natural power for electrical installations will very soon be materially reduced. Even at the price quoted, namely 5 per ton, the cost of nitrate of soda made with electrically combined atmospheric nitrogen compares very favourably with commercial nitrates as now imported for agriculture purposes. "Chili nitrate," in fact, is about fifty per cent. dearer.

When wave-power and other forms of the stored energy of the wind have been properly harnessed in the service of mankind, the region around Niagara will only be one of thousands of localities at which nitrogenous manures can be manufactured electrically at a price far below the present cost of natural deposits of nitrate of soda. From the power stations all around the coasts, as well as from those on waterfalls and windy heights among the mountains, electric cables will be employed to convey the current for fixing the nitrogen of the air at places where the manures are most wanted.

The rediscovery of the art of irrigation is one of the distinguis.h.i.+ng features of modern industrial progress in agriculture. Extensive ruins and other remains in a.s.syria, Egypt, India, China and Central America prove beyond question that irrigation played a vastly more important part in the industrial life of the ancients than it does in that of modern mankind. This is true in spite of the fact that power and dominion ultimately fell to the lot of those races which originally dwelt in colder and more hilly or thickly-wooded regions, where the instincts of hunting and of warfare were naturally developed, so that, by degrees, the peoples who understood irrigation fell under the sway of those who neither needed nor appreciated it. In the long interval vast forests have been cleared away and the warlike habits of the northern and mountainous races have been greatly modified, but manufacturing progress among them has enabled them to perpetuate the power originally secured by the bow and the spear. The irrigating races of mankind are now held in fear of the modern weapons which are the products of the iron and steel industries, just as they were thousands of years ago terrorised by the inroads of the wild hunting men from the North.

But the future of agriculture will very largely belong to a cla.s.s of men who will combine in themselves the best attributes of the irrigationist and the man who knows how to use the iron weapon and the iron implement. As the manufacturing supremacy of the North becomes more and more a.s.sured by reason of the superior healthiness of a climate encouraging activity of muscle and brain, so the agricultural prospects of the warmer regions of the earth's surface will be improved by the comparative immunity of plant and of animal life from disease in a dry atmosphere. Sheep, cattle and horses thrive far better in a climate having but a scanty rainfall than in one having an abundance of wet; and so, also, does the wheat plant when the limited rains happen to be timed to suit its growth, and the best kinds of fruit trees when the same conditions prevail.

All this points to an immense recrudescence of irrigation in the near future. Already the Californians and other Americans of the Pacific Slope have demonstrated that irrigation is a practice fully as well suited to the requirements of a thoroughly up-to-date people as it has been for long ages to those of the "unchanging East". But here again the question of cheap power obtrudes itself. The Chinese, Hindoos and Egyptians have long ago pa.s.sed the stage at which the limited areas which were irrigable by gravitation, without advanced methods of engineering, have been occupied; and the lifting of water for the supplying of their paddy fields has been for thousands of years a laborious occupation for the poorest and most degraded of the rural population.

In a system of civilisation in which transport costs so little as it does in railway and steam-s.h.i.+p freights, the patches of territory which can be irrigated by water brought by gravitation from the hills or from the upper reaches of rivers are comparatively easy of access to a market. This fact r.e.t.a.r.ds the advent of the time when colossal installations for the throwing of water upon the land will be demanded. When that epoch arrives, as it a.s.suredly will before the first half of the twentieth century has been nearly past, the pumping plants devoted to the purposes of irrigation will present as great a contrast to the lifting appliances of the East as does a fully loaded freight train or a mammoth steam cargo-slave to a coolie carrier.

At the same time there must inevitably be a great extension of the useful purposes to which small motors can be applied in irrigation.

Year by year the importance of the sprinkler, not only for ornamental grounds such as lawns and flower-beds, but also for the vegetable patch and the fruit garden, becomes more apparent, and efforts are being made towards the enlargement of the arms of sprinkling contrivances to such an extent as to enable them to throw a fine shower of water over a very large area of ground. Sometimes a windmill is used for pumping river or well-water into high tanks from which it descends by gravitation into the sprinklers, the latter being operated by the power of the liquid as it descends. This mode of working is convenient in many cases; but a more important, because a more widely applicable, method in the future will be that in which the wind-motor not only lifts the water, but scatters it around in the same operation. Long helical-shaped screws, horizontally fixed between uprights or set on a swivel on a single high tower, can be used for loading the breeze with a finely divided shower of water and thus projecting the moisture to very long distances. A windmill of the ordinary pattern, as used for gardens, may be fitted with a long perforated pipe, supported by wire guys instead of a vane, a connection being made by a water-tight swivel-joint between this pipe and that which carries the liquid from the pump. In this way every stroke of the machine sends innumerable jets of water out upon the wind, to be carried far afield.

Gardening properties in comparatively dry climates, fitted with machines of this description, can be laid out in different zones of cultivation, determined according to the prevailing directions of the wind and the consequent distribution of the water supply. Thus if the wind most frequently blows from the west the plants which require the most water must be laid out at the eastern side, not too far from the sprinkler. Facilities for shutting off the supply of spray at will are, of course, very necessary. The system of watering founded on this principle depends upon the a.s.sumption that if the gardener or the farmer could always turn on the rain when he has a fairly good wind he would never lack for seasonable moisture to nourish his crops. This will be found in practice to apply correctly to the great majority of food plants. In the dry climates, which are so eminently healthy for cereals, "the early and the latter rains," as referred to in Scripture, are both needed, and one of the most important applications of cheap power will be directed to supplementing the natural supply either at one end or at the other.

The "tree-doctor" will be a personage of increasing importance in the rural economy of the twentieth century. He is already well in sight; but for lack of capital and of a due appreciation of the value of his services, he occupies as yet but a comparatively subordinate position.

Fruits, which are nature's most elaborately worked-up edible products, must come more and more into favour as the complement to the seed food represented by bread. As the demand increases it will be more clearly seen that an enormous waste of labour is involved in the culture of an orchard unless its trees are kept in perfect health. At the same time the law of specialization must operate to set aside the tree-doctor to his separate duties, just as the physician and the veterinary surgeon already find their own distinctive spheres of work. The apparatus required for the thorough eradication of disease in fruit trees will be too expensive for the average grower to find any advantage in buying it for use only a few times during the year; but the tree-doctor, with his gangs of men, will be able to keep his special appliances at work nearly all the year round.

For the destruction of almost all cla.s.ses of fruit-pests, the only really complete method now in sight is the application of a poisonous gas, such as hydrocyanic acid, which is retained by means of a gas-proof tent pitched around each tree. No kind of a spray or wash can penetrate between bark and stem or into the cavities on fruit so well as a gaseous insecticide which permeates the whole of the air within the included s.p.a.ce. But the gas-tight tent system of fumigation is as yet only in its infancy, and its growth and development will greatly help to place the fruit-growing industry on a new basis, and to bring the best kinds of fruit within the reach of the middle cla.s.ses, the artisans, and ultimately even the very poor. Just as wheaten bread from being a luxury reserved for the rich has become the staple of food for all grades of society, so fruits which are now commonly regarded as an indulgence, although a very desirable addition to the food of the well-to-do, must, in a short time, become practically a necessity to the great ma.s.s of the people generally.

The waste of effort and of wealth involved in planting trees and a.s.siduously cultivating the soil for the growth of poor crops decimated by disease is the prime cause of the dearness of fruit. If, therefore, it be true that the fruit diet is one which is destined to greatly improve the average health of civilised mankind, it is obvious that the tree-doctor will act indirectly as the physician for human ailments. When this fact has been fully realised the public estimation in which economic entomology and kindred sciences are held will rise very appreciably, and the capital invested in complete apparatus for fighting disease in tree life will be enormously increased.

Very long tents, capable of covering not merely one tree each, but of including continuous rows stretching perhaps from end to end of a large orchard, will become practically essential for up-to-date fruit-culture. An elongated tent of this description, covering a row of trees, may be filled with fumes from a position at the end of the row, where a generating plant on a trolley may be situated. At the opposite end another trolley is stationed, and each movable vehicle carries an upright mast or trestle for the support of the strong cable which pa.s.ses along the row over the tops of the trees and is stretched taut by suitable contrivances. Attached to this cable is a flexible tube containing a number of apertures and connected at the generating station with the small furnace or fumigating box from which the poisonous gases emanate.

Along the ground at each side of the row are stretched two thinner wires or cables which hold the long tent securely in position. The method of s.h.i.+fting from one row to another is very simple. Both trolleys are moved into their new positions at the two ends of a fresh row, the fastenings of the tent at the ground on the further side having been released, so that the flap of the tent on that side is dragged over the tops of the trees and may then be drawn over the top cable and down upon the other side. Seen from the end, the movements of the tent thus resemble those of a double-hinged trestle in the form of an inverted V which advances by having one leg flung over the other. For this arrangement of a fumigating tent it is best that the top cable should consist of a double wire, the fabric of the tent itself being gripped between the two wires, and a flexible tube being attached to each.

As progress is made from one row to another through the drawing of one flap over the other, it is obvious that the tent turns inside out at each step, and if only one cable and one tube were used, it would be difficult to avoid permitting the gas to escape into the outer air at one stage or another. But when the tubes are duplicated in the manner described, there is always one which is actually within the tent no matter what position the latter may be in. It is then only necessary that the connection with the generating apparatus at the end of the row should be made after each movement with the tube which is inside the tent. For very long rows of trees the top cable needs to be supported by intermediate trestles besides the uprights at the ends.

The gas and air-proof tent can be used for various other purposes besides those of killing pests on fruit trees. One of the regular tasks of the tree-doctor will be connected with the artificial fertilisation of trees on the wholesale scale and for a purpose such as this it is necessary that the trees to be operated upon shall not be open to the outside atmosphere, but that the pollen dust, with which the air inside the tent is to be laden, shall be strictly confined during a stated period of time. Those methods of fertilisation, with which the flower-gardener has in recent years worked such wonders, can undoubtedly be utilised for many objects besides those of the variation of form and hue in ornamental plants.

CHAPTER VIII.

MINING.

Exploratory telegraphy seems likely to claim a position in the twentieth century economics of mining, its particular role being to aid in the determination of the "strike" of mineral-bearing lodes. One main reason for this conclusion consists in the fact that the formations which carry metalliferous ores are nearly always more moist than the surrounding country, and are therefore better conductors of the electrical current. Indeed there is good ground for the belief that this moistness of the fissures and lodes in which metals chiefly occur has been in part the original cause of the deposition of those metals from their aqueous solutions percolating along the routes in which gravitation carries them. In the volumes of _Nature_ for 1890 and 1891 will be found communications in which the present writer has set forth some of the arguments tending to strengthen the hypothesis that earth-currents of electricity exercise an appreciable influence in determining the occurrence of gold and silver, and that they have probably been to some extent instrumental in settling the distribution of other metals.

The existence of currents of electricity pa.s.sing through the earth's crust and on its surface along the lines of least resistance has long been an established fact. Experiments conducted at Harvard, U.S.A., by Professor Trowbridge have proved beyond a doubt that, by means of such delicate apparatus as the telephone and microphone, it is possible for the observer to state in which direction, from a given point, the best line of conductivity runs. Under certain conditions the return current is so materially facilitated when brought along the line of a watercourse or a moist patch of the earth's crust, that the words heard through a telephone are distinctly more audible than they are at a similar distance when there is no moist return circuit. Deflections of the compa.s.s, due to the pa.s.sing of earth-currents along the natural lines of conductivity in the soil or the rocks, are so frequently noticed as to be a source of calculation to the scientific surveyor and astronomer. It can thus be shown not only that definite lines of least electrical resistance exist in the earth, but also that natural currents of greater or less strength are almost constantly pa.s.sing along these lines.

Some of the curious and puzzling empirical rules gained from the life-long experience of miners in regard to the varying richness and poorness of mineral lodes, according to the directions in which they strike--whether north, south, east or west--may very probably be explained, and to some extent justified, by the fuller light which science may throw upon the conditions determining the action of earth-currents in producing results similar to those of electro deposition. If, in a given region of a mineral-bearing country, the geological formation is such as to lend itself to the easy conduction of currents in one direction rather than in another, the phenomenon referred to may perhaps be partially explained. But, on the other hand, the origin of the generating force which sets the currents in motion must first be studied before the true conditions determining their direction can be understood. In other words, much that is now obscure, including the true origin of the earth's magnetism, must be to some extent cleared up before the reasons for the seemingly erratic strike of earth-currents and of richness in mineral lodes can be fully explained.

Practice, however, may here get some distance ahead of science, and may indeed lend some a.s.sistance to the latter by providing empirical data upon which it may proceed. When once it is clearly seen that by delicate electrical instruments, such as the telephone, the microphone and the coherer as used in wireless telegraphy, the line of least resistance on any given area of the earth's surface or any given piece of its crust may be determined, the bearing of that fact in showing the best lines of moisture and therefore the likeliest lines for mineral lodes will soon be recognised in a very practical manner.

No cla.s.s of men is keener or more enterprising in its applications of the latest practical science to the getting of money than mining speculators. Nor have they at all missed the significance of moist bands occurring in any underground workings as a very favourable augury for the close approach of highly mineralised lodes. If, then, moisture be favourable, first to the presence of mineral-bearing country and secondly to the conductivity of electrical lines, it is obvious that there is a hopeful field for the exercise of ingenuity in bringing the one into a practical relation to the other.

The occult scientific reasons for the connection may not be understood; but it is sufficient for practical purposes to know that, in a certain line from the surface outcropping of a mineral lode, there has been given a demonstration of less electrical resistance along that line than is experienced in any other direction; also to know that such a line of least resistance is proved to have been, in almost innumerable instances, coincident with the best line of mineral-bearing country. The case is similar to that of the rotation of crops in its relation to scientific microbiology. The art of mining may get ahead of the science of physiography in respect of earth-currents and lines of least resistance, as showing where mineral lodes may be expected. Yet there is no doubt whatever that science will not in the one case lag so far behind as it has done in the other.

The first notable service rendered by systems of the kind indicated will no doubt be in connection with the rediscovery of very valuable lodes which have been followed up for certain distances and then lost.

In an instance of this description much fruitless exploration drives, winzes and "jump-ups" may have been carried out in the surrounding country rock near the place where the lode last "cut out"; but, in the absence of anything to guide the mine manager and surveyor as to the direction which the search should take, nothing but loss has been involved in the quest. Several properties in the same neighbourhood have, perhaps, been abandoned or suspended in operation owing to very similar causes.

The whole group may perhaps have then been bought by an exploration company whose _modus operandi_ will be as follows: The terminal of the electrical exploration plant is fixed at the end of the lode where it gave out, or else immersed in the water of the shaft which is in connection with the lode system; and another similar terminal is fixed by turns in each shaft of the contiguous group. The electrical resistances offered to the return currents, or to the wireless vibrations, are then carefully measured; and the direction of the lost lode is taken to be that which shows the least resistance in proportion to the distance traversed. The work of carrying out such an investigation must of necessity be somewhat elaborate, because it may be necessary to connect in turn each shaft, as a centre, with every one of the others as subsidiaries. But the guidance afforded even of a negative character, resulting in the avoidance of useless cutting and blasting through heavy country, will prove invaluable.

Many matters will require attention, in following out such a line of practical investigation, which are to some extent foreign to the usual work of the mining engineer. For example, the conditions which determine the "short-circuiting" of an earth-current require to be carefully noted, because it would be fallacious to reason that because the line of least resistance lay in a certain direction, therefore an almost continuous lode would be found. Moreover, the electrical method must only be relied upon as a guide when carefully checked by other considerations. Other kinds of moist formations, both metalliferous and non-metalliferous, may influence the lines of least electrical resistance, besides those containing the particular metal which is being sought for.

The water difficulty has enforced the abandonment of very many valuable mines in which the positions of the lodes are still well known. Sunken riches lying beneath the sea in old Spanish galleons have excited the cupidity and the ingenuity of speculators and engineers; but the total amount of wealth thus hidden away from view is a mere insignificant fraction of the value of the rich metalliferous lodes which lie below the water level in flooded mines.

The point in depth at which the acc.u.mulation of the water renders further following of the lode impracticable may vary in different countries. In China, throughout whole provinces, there is hardly a mine to be found in which the efforts of the miners have not been absolutely paralyzed directly the water-level was reached. But in Western lands, as well as in South Africa and Australia, the immense capacity of the pumps employed for keeping down the water has enabled comparatively wet ground to be worked to a very considerable depth.

The limit, nevertheless, has been reached in many rich mining districts. Pumps of the most approved type, and driven by the largest and most economical steam-engines, have done their best in the struggle against the difficulty; and yet the water has beaten them.

Rich as are the lodes which lie beneath the water, the mining engineer is compelled to confess that the metal value which they contain would not leave, after extraction, a sufficient margin to pay for the enormous cost of draining the shafts. In some instances, indeed, it remains exceedingly doubtful whether pumps of the largest capacity ever attained in any part of the world would cope with the task entailed in draining the abandoned shafts. The underground workings have practically tapped subterranean rivers which, to all intents and purposes, are inexhaustible. Or it may be that the mine has penetrated into some hollow basin of impermeable strata filled only with porous material which is kept constantly saturated. To drain such a piece of country would mean practically the emptying of a lake.

Subaqueous mining is therefore one of the big problems which the mining engineer of the twentieth century must tackle. To a certain extent he will receive guidance in his difficult task from the experiences of those who have virtually undertaken submarine mining when in search of treasure lost in sunken s.h.i.+ps. The two methods of pumping and of subaqueous mining will in some places be carried out conjointly.

In such instances the work a.s.signed to the pumping machinery will be to keep free of water those drives in which good bodies of ore were exposed when last profitable work was being carried on. All below that level will be permitted to fill with water, and the work of boring by means of compressed air, of blasting out the rock and of filling the trucks, will all be performed under the surface. For the shallower depths large tanks, open at the top, will be constructed and slung upon trucks run on rails along the lowest drives. Practically this arrangement means that an iron shaft, closed at the sides and bottom, and movable on rails laid above the surface, will be employed to keep the water out. Somewhat similar appliances have been found very useful in the operations for laying the foundations of bridges.

The details requiring to be worked out for the successful working of subaqueous systems of mining are numerous and important. Chief among these must be the needful provision for enabling the miner to see through strong gla.s.s windows near the bottom of the iron shaft, by the aid of electric lights slung in the water outside, and thus to estimate the correct positions at which to place his drills and his explosives. For this reason the work of the day must be systematically divided so that at stated intervals the clay and other materials held in suspension by the disturbed water may be allowed to settle and the water be made comparatively clear.

Specially constructed strainers for the mechanical filtration of the water near the ore face, and probably, also, chemical and other precipitates, will be largely resorted to for facilitating this important operation. Beside each window will be provided strong flexible sleeves, terminating in gloves into which the miner can place his hands for the purpose of adjusting the various pieces of machinery required. Beyond this, of course, every possible application of mechanical power operated from above will be resorted to, not only for drilling, but also for gripping and removing the shattered pieces of rock and ore resulting from the blasting operations.

From the unwatered drive or tunnel downwards, the method of working as just described may be characterised as an underground application of the "open-cut system". No elaborate honeycombing of the country below the water-level will be economically possible as it is when working in dry rock. But then, again, it is becoming plain to many experts in mining that, in working downwards from the surface itself, the future of their industry offers a wide field for the extension of the open-cut system. In proportion as power becomes cheaper, the expense attendant upon the removal of clay, sand, and rock for the purpose of laying bare the cap of a lode at a moderate depth becomes less formidable when balanced against the economy introduced by methods which admit of the miner working in the open air, although at the bottom of a kind of deep quarry. While the system of close mining will hold its own in a very large number of localities, still there are other places where the increasing cheapness of power for working an open-cut and the coincident increase in the scarcity and cost of timber for supporting the ground, will gradually s.h.i.+ft the balance of advantage on to the side of the open method.