Assyria, Its Princes, Priests and People Part 2

We see, therefore, that in adopting the pantheon of Accad, the Semites made three important changes. The Sun-G.o.d was a.s.signed a leading place in wors.h.i.+p and belief; female deities were introduced, who were, however, mere reflections of the G.o.ds; while the inferior deities of the Accadians were cla.s.sed among 'the 300 spirits of heaven' and 'the 600 spirits of earth,' only a few of the more prominent ones retaining their old position. These latter may be grouped as follows:-

At the head of the divine hierarchy still stood the old triad of Anu, Mul-ge, and Ea. Mul-ge's name, however, was changed to Bel, but since Merodach was also known as Bel, he fell more and more into the background, especially after the rise of Babylon, of which city Merodach was the patron deity. At Nipur, now Niffer, alone, he continued to be wors.h.i.+pped down into late times. His consort was Bilat, or Beltis, 'the great lady,' who eventually came to be regarded as the wife of Merodach rather than of 'the other Bel.' Like Anu and Ea, Bel was the offspring of Sar and Kisar, the upper and lower firmaments.

Anu was the visible sky, but he also represented the invisible heaven, which was supposed to extend above the visible one, and to be the abode of the G.o.ds. The chief seat of his wors.h.i.+p was Erech, where he was regarded as the oldest of the G.o.ds, and the original creator of the universe. But elsewhere, also, he was looked upon as the creator of the visible world, and the father of the G.o.ds. By his side, in the Semitic period, stood the G.o.ddess Anat, whose attributes were derived from his.

The wors.h.i.+p of Anat spread from Babylonia to the Canaanites, as is shown by the geographical names Beth Anath, 'the temple of Anat' (Josh. xix.

38; xv. 59), and Anathoth, the city of 'the G.o.ddesses Anat.' It was even introduced into Egypt after the Asiatic wars of the eighteenth dynasty.

In the prae-Semitic days of Chaldea, a monotheistic school had flourished, which resolved the various deities of the Accadian belief into manifestations of the one supreme G.o.d, Anu; and old hymns exist in which reference is made to 'the one G.o.d.' But this school never seems to have numbered many adherents, and it eventually died out. Its existence, however, reminds us of the fact that Abraham was born in 'Ur of the Chaldees.'

Ea originally represented the ocean-stream or 'great deep,' which was supposed to surround the earth like a serpent, and by which all rivers and springs were fed. He was symbolised by the snake, and was held to be the creator and benefactor of mankind. One of his most frequent t.i.tles is 'lord of wisdom,' and the chief seat of his wors.h.i.+p was at Eridu, 'the holy city,' near which was the sacred grove or 'garden,' the centre of the world, where the tree of life and knowledge had its roots. It was Ea who had given to mankind not only life, but all the arts and appliances of culture also, and it was his help that the Babylonian invoked when in trouble. He was emphatically the G.o.d of healing, who had revealed medicines to mankind. As G.o.d of the great deep, he was often figured as a man with the tail of a fish, and in this form was known to the Greeks under the name of Oannes or 'Ea the fish.' Sometimes the skin of a fish was suspended behind his back. Oannes, it was said, had in early days ascended out of the Persian Gulf, and taught the first inhabitants of Babylonia letters, science, and art, besides writing a history of the origin of mankind and their different ways of life. His wife was Dav-kina, 'the lady of the earth,' who presided over the lower world.

Among the numerous offspring of Ea and Dav-kina, Merodach held the foremost place. He was originally a form of the Sun-G.o.d, regarded under his beneficent aspect, and was believed to be ever engaged in combating the powers of evil, and in performing services for mankind. Hence he is addressed as 'the redeemer of mankind,' 'the restorer to life,' and the 'raiser from the dead,' and a considerable number of the religious hymns are dedicated to him. He was believed to be continually pa.s.sing backwards and forwards between the earth and the heaven where Ea dwelt, informing Ea of the sufferings of men, and returning with Ea's directions how to relieve them. One of the bas-reliefs from Nineveh, now in the British Museum, represents him as pursuing with his curved sword or thunderbolt the demon Tiamat, the personification of chaos and anarchy, who is depicted with claws, tail, and horns. As we have already seen, he was commonly addressed as Bel or 'lord,' and so came gradually to supplant the older Bel or Mul-ge. Among the planets his star was Jupiter. His wife was Zarpanit or Zirat-panitu, in whom some scholars have seen the Succoth-benoth of 2 Kings xvii. 30.

The children of Merodach and Zarpanit were Nebo, 'the prophet,' and his wife Tasmit, 'the hearer.' Nebo was the G.o.d of oratory and literature; it was he who 'enlightened the eyes' to understand written characters, while his wife 'enlarged the ears,' so that they could comprehend what was read. The origin of the cuneiform system of writing was ascribed to Nebo. To him was dedicated 'the temple of the Seven Lights of Heaven and Earth,' at Borsippa, the suburb of Babylon, which is now known to the Arabs as the Birs-i-Nimrd, and his wors.h.i.+p was carried as far as Canaan, as we may gather from such names as the city of Nebo, in Judaea (Ezra ii. 29), and Mount Nebo, in Moab (Deut. x.x.xii. 49). In Accadian he had been called Dimsar, 'the tablet-writer,' and a temple was erected to him in the island of Bahrein, in the Persian Gulf, where he was wors.h.i.+pped under the name of Enzak. As a planetary deity, he was identified with Mercury. He was often adored under the name of Nusku, although Nusku had originally been a separate divinity, and the same, perhaps, as the Nisroch of the Bible (2 Kings xix. 37).

The companion of Merodach was Rimmon, or rather Ramman, 'the thunderer.'

He represented the atmosphere, and was accordingly the G.o.d of rain and storm, who was armed with the lightning and the thunderbolt. Sometimes he was dreaded as 'the destroyer of crops,' 'the scatterer of the harvest;' at other times prayers were made to him as 'the lord of fecundity.' His wors.h.i.+p extended into Syria, where Rimmon appears to have been the supreme deity of Damascus, and where he was also known under the name of Hadad or Dadda.

Two other elemental G.o.ds were Samas, the Sun-G.o.d, and Sin, the Moon-G.o.d.

Samas was the son of Sin, in accordance with the astronomical view of the old Babylonians, which made the moon the measurer of time, and regarded the day as the offspring of night. Samas, however, like Saul or Savul, another deity of whom mention is made in the inscriptions, was really but a form of Merodach, though in historical times the two divinities were separated from one another, and received different cults. Samas, again, was originally identical with Tammuz; but when Tammuz came to denote only the sun of spring and summer, while the myth that a.s.sociated him with Istar laid firm hold of men's minds, Tammuz a.s.sumed separate attributes, and an individual existence apart from Samas.

Sin, the Moon-G.o.d, was termed Agu or Acu by the Accadians, and if the name of Mount Sinai was derived from him, as is sometimes supposed, we should have evidence that he was known and wors.h.i.+pped in Northern Arabia. At all events he was one of the deities of Southern Arabia. Sin was the patron-G.o.d of the city of Ur, and it was to him that the a.s.syrian kings traced the formation of their kingdom. One of the most famous of his temples was in the ancient city of Harran, where he was symbolised by an upright cone of stone. As the emblem of the Sun-G.o.d was the solar orb, the emblem of Sin was the crescent moon.

According to some of the legends of Babylonia, the daughter of the Moon-G.o.d was the G.o.ddess Istar. Other legends, however, placed Istar among the older G.o.ds, and made her the daughter of Anu, the sky. In either case she was at the outset the G.o.ddess of the evening star, and when it was discovered that the evening and morning stars were the same, of the morning star also. As the evening star, she was known as Istar of Erech, as the morning star, she was identified with Anunit or Anat, the G.o.ddess of Accad. At times she was also regarded as androgynous, both male and female.

Istar was the chief of the Accadian G.o.ddesses, and she retained her rank even among the Semites, who, as we have seen, looked upon the G.o.ddess as the mere consort and shadow of the G.o.d. But Istar continued to the last a separate and independent divinity. She presided over love and war, as well as over the chase. She was invoked as 'the queen of heaven,' 'the queen of all the G.o.ds,' and there was often a tendency to merge in her the other G.o.ddesses of the pantheon. Her princ.i.p.al temples were at Erech, Nineveh, and Arbela, but altars were erected to her in almost every place, and she was adored under as many forms and t.i.tles as she possessed shrines. Her name and wors.h.i.+p spread through the Semitic world, in Southern Arabia, in Syria, in Moab, where she was identified with the Sun-G.o.d, Chemosh, and in Canaan, where she was called Ashtoreth, the Astarte of the Greeks. But the Greeks also knew her as Aphrodite, the G.o.ddess whom they had borrowed from the Phnicians of Canaan, and we may discover her again in the Ephesian Artemis. The rites performed in her temples made Istar or Ashtoreth the darkest blot in a.s.syrian and Canaanitish religion, and excited the utmost horror and indignation of the prophets of G.o.d. When the moon came to be conceived as a female divinity, the pale reflection, as it were, of the sun, Istar, the evening star, became also the G.o.ddess of the moon. Hence it is that 'the queen of heaven' (Jer. xliv. 17) pa.s.sed into Astarte 'with crescent horns.'

One of the most popular of old Babylonian myths told how Istar had wedded the young and beautiful Sun-G.o.d, Tammuz, 'the only-begotten,' and had descended into Hades in search of him when he had been slain by the boar's tusk of winter. A portion of a Babylonian poem has been preserved to us, which describes her pa.s.sage through the seven gates of the underworld, where she left with the warden of each some one of her adornments, until at last she reached the seat of the infernal G.o.ddess Allat, stripped and bare. There she remained imprisoned until the G.o.ds, wearied of the long absence of the G.o.ddess of love, created a hound called 'the renewal of light,' who restored her to the upper world. The myth clearly refers to the waning and waxing of the monthly moon, and must therefore have originated when Istar had already become the G.o.ddess of the moon. The myth entered deeply into the religious belief of the wors.h.i.+ppers of Istar. The Accadians called the month of August 'the month of the errand of Istar,' while June was termed 'the month of Tammuz' by the Semites. It was then that, as Milton writes, his

'annual wound in Lebanon allured The Syrian damsels to lament his fate In amorous ditties all a summer's day; While smooth Adonis from his native rock Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood Of Tammuz yearly wounded.'

But it was not only in a.s.syria and Phnicia that the death of Tammuz was lamented by the women year by year. The infection spread to Judah also, and even in Jerusalem, within the precincts of the temple itself, Ezekiel saw 'women weeping for Tammuz' (Ezek. viii. 14).

[Ill.u.s.tration: NERGAL.

(_From the original in the British Museum._)]

There are only two other a.s.syro-Babylonian deities who need be mentioned, Nergal and Adar. Nergal was the presiding deity of Cuthah and its vast necropolis.[3] He shared with Anu the privilege of superintending the regions of the dead, and he was also a G.o.d of hunting and war. His name, like those of Anu, Ea, and Istar, was of Accadian origin. Adar, the son of Beltis, was one of those solar deities who were formed by wors.h.i.+pping the Sun-G.o.d under some particular attribute. The reading of his name is, unfortunately, not certain, and Adar is only its most probable p.r.o.nunciation. If it is correct, Adar will be the deity meant in 2 Kings xvii. 31, where it is stated that the people of Sepharvaim, or the two Sipparas, burnt their children in fire to Adrammelech and Anammelech, that is to say, to 'King Adar' and 'King Anu.'

[3] Confer 2 Kings xvii. 30.

Such were the princ.i.p.al divinities of Babylonia and a.s.syria. But the a.s.syrians had another also, whom they exalted above all the rest. This was a.s.sur, the divine impersonation of the state and empire. It was a.s.sur who, according to the a.s.syrian kings, led them to victory, and the cruelties they practised on the conquered were, they held, judgments exercised against those who would not believe in him. a.s.sur, in the form of an archer, is sometimes represented on the monuments in the midst of the winged solar disk, and above the head of the monarch, whom he protects from his enemies.

The a.s.syrian, however, was not so pious or superst.i.tious as his Babylonian neighbour. The Babylonian lived in perpetual dread of the evil spirits which thronged about him; almost every moment had its religious ceremony, almost every action its religious complement. Not only had the State ritual to be attended to; the unceasing attacks of the demons could be warded off only by magical incantations and the intervention of the sorcerer-priest. But the a.s.syrians were too much occupied with wars and fighting to give all this heed to the requirements of religion. It is significant that, whereas in Babylonia we find the remains of scarcely any great buildings except temples, the great buildings of a.s.syria were the royal palaces. The libraries, which in Babylonia were stored in the temples, were deposited in a.s.syria in the palace of the king.

Nevertheless, the greater part of the religious system of Babylonia had been transported into a.s.syria. Along with the Babylonian deities had come the Babylonian scriptures. These were divided into two great collections or volumes. The first, and oldest, was a collection of exorcisms and magical texts, by the use of which, it was believed, the spirits of evil could be driven away, and the spirits of good induced to visit the reciter. When, however, certain independent deities began to emerge from among the mult.i.tudinous 'spirits' of the primitive Accadian creed, hymns were composed in their honour, and these hymns were eventually collected together, and, like the Rig-Veda of India, became a second sacred book. After the Accadians had been supplanted by the Semites, the Accadian language, in which the hymns were originally written, was provided with a Semitic translation; but it was still considered necessary to recite the exact words of the original, since the words themselves were sacred, and any mistake in their p.r.o.nunciation would invalidate the religious service in which they were employed. Some of the incantations embodied in the collection of exorcisms must have been introduced into it subsequently to the compilation of the sacred hymns, since the latter are found inserted in them. From this it would appear that the older collection continued to receive additions for a long while after the younger collection-that of the sacred hymns-had been put together and invested with a sacred character. This could not have been till after the beginning of the Semitic period, since there are a few hymns which do not seem to have had any Accadian originals. If we may compare the two collections with our own religious literature, we may say that the collection of hymns corresponded more to our Bible, that of exorcisms to our Prayer Book.

The Babylonians and a.s.syrians, however, possessed a liturgy which answered far better to our conception of what a Prayer Book should be.

This contained services for particular days and hours, together with rubrics for the direction of the priest. Thus we are told that 'in the month Nisan, on the second day, two hours after nightfall, the priest [of Bel at Babylon] must come and take of the waters of the river, must enter into the presence of Bel, and change his dress; must put on a robe in the presence of Bel, and say this prayer: "O my lord who in his strength has no equal, O my lord, blessed sovereign, lord of the world, speeding the peace of the great G.o.ds, the lord who in his might destroys the strong, lord of kings, light of mankind, establisher of trust, O Bel, thy sceptre is Babylon, thy crown is Borsippa, the wide heaven is the dwelling-place of thy liver.... O lord of the world, light of the spirits of heaven, utterer of blessings, who is there whose mouth murmurs not of thy righteousness, or speaks not of thy glory, and celebrates not thy dominion? O lord of the world, who dwellest in the temple of the sun, reject not the hands that are raised to thee; be merciful to thy city Babylon, to Beth-Saggil thy temple incline thy face, grant the prayers of thy people the sons of Babylon."'

Part of the liturgy consisted of prayers addressed to the various deities, and suited to various occasions. Here are examples of them: 'At dawn and in the night prayer should be made to the throne-bearer, and thus should it be said: "O throne-bearer, giver of prosperity, a prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Nusku, and thus let it be said: "O Nusku, prince and king of the secrets of the great G.o.ds, a prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Adar, and thus let it be said: "O Adar, mighty lord of the deep places of the springs, a prayer!"

After that let prayer be made to Gula (Beltis), and thus let it be said: "O Gula, mother, begetter of the black-headed race (of Accadians), a prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Nin-lil, and thus let it be said: "O Nin-lil, great G.o.ddess, wife of the divine prince of sovereignty, a prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Bel, and thus let it be said: "O lord supreme, establisher of law, a prayer!" The prayer (must be repeated) during the day at dawn, and in the night, with face and mouth uplifted, during the middle watch. Water must be poured out in libation day by day ... at dawn, on the beams of the palace.'

One of the most curious of these pet.i.tions is a prayer after a bad dream, of which a fragment only has been found. This reads as follows: 'May the lord set my prayer at rest, (may he remove) my heavy (sin). May the lord (grant) a return of favour. By day direct unto death all that disquiets me. O my G.o.ddess, be gracious unto me; when (wilt thou hear) my prayer? May they pardon my sin, my wickedness, (and) my transgression. May the exalted one deliver, may the holy one love. May the seven winds carry away my groaning. May the worm lay it low, may the bird bear it upwards to heaven. May a shoal of fish carry it away; may the river bear it along. May the creeping thing of the field come unto me; may the waters of the river as they flow cleanse me. Enlighten me like a mask of gold. Food and drink before thee perpetually may I get.

Heap up the worm, take away his life. The steps of thy altar, thy many ones, may I ascend. With the worm make me pa.s.s, and may I be kept with thee. Make me to be fed, and may a favourable dream come. May the dream I dream be favourable; may the dream I dream be fulfilled. May the dream I dream turn to prosperity. May Makhir, the G.o.d of dreams, settle upon my head. Let me enter Beth-Saggil, the palace of the G.o.ds, the temple of the lord. Give me unto Merodach, the merciful, to prosperity, even unto prospering hands. May thy entering (O Merodach) be exalted, may thy divinity be glorious; may the men of thy city extol thy mighty deeds.'

Along with these prayers, the a.s.syrians possessed a collection of penitential psalms, which were composed at a very remote period in Southern Babylonia. The most perfect of those of which we have copies is the following:-

My Lord is wroth in his heart: may he be appeased again.

May G.o.d be appeased again, for I knew not that I sinned.

May Istar, my mother, be appeased again, for I knew not that I sinned, G.o.d knoweth that I knew not: may he be appeased.

Istar, my mother, knoweth that I knew not: may she be appeased.

May the heart of my G.o.d be appeased.

May G.o.d and Istar, my mother, be appeased.

May G.o.d cease from his anger.

May Istar, my mother, cease from her anger.

The transgression (I committed my G.o.d) knew.

[The next few lines are obliterated.]

The transgression (I committed, Istar, my mother, knew).

(My tears) I drink like the waters of the sea.

That which was forbidden by my G.o.d I ate without knowing.

That which was forbidden by Istar, my mother, I trampled on without knowing.

O my Lord, my transgression is great, many are my sins.

O my G.o.d, my transgression is great, many are my sins.

O Istar, my mother, my transgression is great, many are my sins.

O my G.o.d, who knowest that I knew not, my transgression is great, many are my sins.

O Istar, my mother, who knowest that I knew not, my transgression is great, many are my sins.

The transgression that I committed I knew not.

The sin that I sinned I knew not.

The forbidden thing did I eat.

The forbidden thing did I trample on.

My Lord, in the anger of his heart, has punished me.

G.o.d, in the strength of his heart, has taken me.

Istar, my mother, has seized upon me, and put me to grief.

G.o.d, who knoweth that I knew not, has afflicted me.

Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew not, has caused darkness.

I prayed, and none takes my hand.

I wept, and none held my palm.

I cry aloud, but there is none that will hear me.

I am in darkness and hiding, I dare not look up.

To G.o.d I refer my distress, I utter my prayer.

The feet of Istar, my mother, I embrace.

To G.o.d, who knoweth that I knew not, my prayer I utter.

To Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew not, my prayer I address.

[The next four lines are destroyed.]

How long, O G.o.d (shall I suffer)?