The Student's Elements of Geology Part 29

LOWER EOCENE FORMATIONS, ENGLAND.

LONDON CLAY (C.1, TABLE 16.1).

This formation underlies the preceding, and sometimes attains a thickness of 500 feet. It consists of tenacious brown and bluish-grey clay, with layers of concretions called septaria, which abound chiefly in the brown clay, and are obtained in sufficient numbers from sea-cliffs near Harwich, and from shoals off the coast of Ess.e.x and the Isle of Sheppey, to be used for making Roman cement.

The total number of British fossil mollusca known at present (January, 1870) in this formation are 254, of which 166 are peculiar, or not found in other Eocene beds in this country. The princ.i.p.al localities of fossils in the London clay are Highgate Hill, near London, the Island of Sheppey at the mouth of the Thames, and Bognor on the Suss.e.x coast. Out of 133 fossil sh.e.l.ls, Mr. Prestwich found only 20 to be common to the Calcaire Grossier (from which 600 species have been obtained), while 33 are common to the "Lits Coquilliers" (see below), in which 200 species are known in France.

In the Island of Sheppey near the mouth of the Thames, the thickness of the London Clay is estimated by Mr. Prestwich to be more than 500 feet, and it is in the uppermost 50 feet that a great number of fossil fruits were obtained, being chiefly found on the beach when the sea has washed away the clay of the rapidly wasting cliffs.

(FIGURE 205. Nipadites ellipticus, Bowerbank. Fossil fruit of palm, from Sheppey.)

Mr. Bowerbank, in a valuable publication on these fossil fruits and seeds, has described no less than thirteen fruits of palms of the recent type Nipa, now only found in the Molucca and Philippine Islands, and in Bengal (see Figure 205). In the delta of the Ganges, Dr. Hooker observed the large nuts of Nipa fruticans floating in such numbers in the various arms of that great river, as to obstruct the paddle-wheels of steamboats. These plants are allied to the cocoanut tribe on the one side, and on the other to the Panda.n.u.s, or screw-pine.

There are also met with three species of Anona, or custard-apple; and cucurbitaceous fruits (of the gourd and melon family), and fruits of various species of Acacia.

Besides fir-cones or fruit of true Coniferae there are cones of Proteaceae in abundance, and the celebrated botanist the late Robert Brown pointed out the affinity of these to the New Holland types Petrophila and Isopogon. Of the first there are about fifty, and of the second thirty described species now living in Australia.

(FIGURE 206. Eocene Proteaceous Fruit.

Petrophiloides Richardsoni. London Clay, Sheppey. Natural size.

a. Cone.

b. Section of cone showing the position of the seeds.)

Ettingshausen remarked in 1851 that five of the fossil species from Sheppey, named by Bowerbank (Fossil Fruits and Seeds of London Clay Plates 9 and 10.) were specimens of the same fruit (see Figure 206), in different states of preservation; and Mr. Carruthers, having examined the original specimens now in the British Museum, tells me that all these cones from Sheppey may be reduced to two species, which have an undoubted affinity to the two existing Australian genera above mentioned, although their perfect ident.i.ty in structure can not be made out.

The contiguity of land may be inferred not only from these vegetable productions, but also from the teeth and bones of crocodiles and turtles, since these creatures, as Dean Conybeare remarked, must have resorted to some sh.o.r.e to lay their eggs. Of turtles there were numerous species referred to extinct genera. These are, for the most part, not equal in size to the largest living tropical turtles. A sea-snake, which must have been thirteen feet long, of the genus Palaeophis before mentioned, has also been described by Professor Owen from Sheppey, of a different species from that of Bracklesham, and called Palaeophis toliapicus. A true crocodile, also, Crocodilus toliapicus, and another saurian more nearly allied to the gavial, accompany the above fossils; also the relics of several birds and quadrupeds. One of these last belongs to the new genus Hyracotherium of Owen, of the hog tribe, allied to Chaeropotamus, another is a Lophiodon; a third a pachyderm called Coryphodon eocaenus by Owen, larger than any existing tapir. All these animals seem to have inhabited the banks of the great river which floated down the Sheppey fruits. They imply the existence of a mammiferous fauna antecedent to the period when nummulites flourished in Europe and Asia, and therefore before the Alps, Pyrenees, and other mountain-chains now forming the backbones of great continents, were raised from the deep; nay, even before a part of the const.i.tuent rocky ma.s.ses now entering into the central ridges of these chains had been deposited in the sea.

Sh.e.l.lS OF THE LONDON CLAY.

(FIGURE 207. Voluta nodosa, Sowerby. Highgate.)

(FIGURE 208. Phorus extensus, Sowerby. Highgate.)

(FIGURE 209. Rostellaria (Hippocrenes) ampla, Brander. 1/3 of natural size; also found in the Barton clay.)

(FIGURE 210. Nautilus centralis, Sowerby. Highgate.)

(FIGURE 211. Aturia ziczac, Bronn. Syn. Nautilus ziczac, Sowerby. London clay.

Sheppey.)

(FIGURE 212. Belosepia sepioidea, De Blainv. London clay. Sheppey.)

(FIGURE 213. Leda amygdaloides, Sowerby. Highgate.)

(FIGURE 214. Cyptodon (Axinus) angulatum, Sowerby. London clay. Hornsey.)

(FIGURE 215. Astropecten crispatus, E. Forbes. Sheppey.)

The marine sh.e.l.ls of the London Clay confirm the inference derivable from the plants and reptiles in favour of a high temperature. Thus many species of Conus and Voluta occur, a large Cypraea, C. oviformis, a very large Rostellaria (Figure 209), a species of Cancellaria, six species of Nautilus (Figure 211), besides other Cephalopoda of extinct genera, one of the most remarkable of which is the Belosepia (Figure 212). Among many characteristic bivalve sh.e.l.ls are Leda amygdaloides (Figure 213) and Cryptodon angulatum (Figure 214), and among the Radiata a star-fish, Astropecten (Figure 215.)

These fossils are accompanied by a sword-fish (Tetrapterus priscus, Aga.s.siz), about eight feet long, and a saw-fish (Pristis bisulcatus, Aga.s.siz), about ten feet in length; genera now foreign to the British seas. On the whole, about eighty species of fish have been described by M. Aga.s.siz from these beds of Sheppey, and they indicate, in his opinion, a warm climate.

In the lower part of the London clay at Kyson, a few miles east of Woodbridge, the remains of mammalia have been detected. Some of these have been referred by Professor Owen to an opossum, and others to the genus Hyracotherium. The teeth of this last-mentioned pachyderm were at first, in 1840, supposed to belong to a monkey, an opinion afterwards abandoned by Owen when more ample materials for comparison were obtained.

WOOLWICH AND READING SERIES (C.2, TABLE 16.1.)

This formation was formerly called the Plastic Clay, as it agrees with a similar clay used in pottery which occupies the same position in the French series, and it has been used for the like purposes in England. (Prestwich Quarterly Geological Journal volume 10.)

No formations can be more dissimilar, on the whole, in mineral character than the Eocene deposits of England and Paris; those of our own island being almost exclusively of mechanical origin-- acc.u.mulations of mud, sand, and pebbles; while in the neighbourhood of Paris we find a great succession of strata composed of limestones, some of them siliceous, and of crystalline gypsum and siliceous sandstone, and sometimes of pure flint used for millstones. Hence it is often impossible, as before stated, to inst.i.tute an exact comparison between the various members of the English and French series, and to settle their respective ages. But in regard to the division which we have now under consideration, whether we study it in the basins of London, Hamps.h.i.+re, or Paris, we recognise as a general rule the same mineral character, the beds consisting over a large area of mottled clays and sand, with lignite, and with some strata of well-rolled flint pebbles, derived from the chalk, varying in size, but occasionally several inches in diameter. These strata may be seen in the Isle of Wight in contact with the chalk, or in the London basin, at Reading, Blackheath, and Woolwich. In some of the lowest of them, banks of oysters are observed, consisting of Ostrea bellovacina, so common in France in the same relative position. In these beds at Bromley, Dr. Buckland found a large pebble to which five full-grown oysters were affixed, in such a manner as to show that they had commenced their first growth upon it, and remained attached to it through life.

(FIGURE 216. Cyrena cuneiformis, Sowerby. Natural size. Woolwich clays.)

(FIGURE 217. Melania (Melanatria) inquinata, Des. Syn. Cerithium melanoides, Sowerby. Woolwich clays.)

In several places, as at Woolwich on the Thames, at Newhaven in Suss.e.x, and elsewhere, a mixture of marine and fresh-water testacea distinguishes this member of the series. Among the latter, Cyrena cuneiformis (see Figure 216) and Melania inquinata (see Figure 217) are very common, as in beds of corresponding age in France. They clearly indicate points where rivers entered the Eocene sea.

Usually there is a mixture of brackish, fresh-water, and marine sh.e.l.ls, and sometimes, as at Woolwich, proofs of the river and the sea having successively prevailed on the same spot. At New Charlton, in the suburbs of Woolwich, Mr. de la Condamine discovered in 1849, and pointed out to me, a layer of sand a.s.sociated with well-rounded flint pebbles in which numerous individuals of the Cyrena tellinella were seen standing endwise with both their valves united, the siphonal extremity of each sh.e.l.l being uppermost, as would happen if the mollusks had died in their natural position. I have described a bank of sandy mud, in the delta of the Alabama River at Mobile, on the borders of the Gulf of Mexico, where in 1846 I dug out at low tide specimens of living species of Cyrena and of a Gnathodon, which were similarly placed with their sh.e.l.ls erect, or in a posture which enables the animal to protrude its siphon upward, and draw in or reject water at pleasure. (Second Visit to the United States volume 2 page 104.) The water at Mobile is usually fresh, but sometimes brackish. At Woolwich a body of river-water must have flowed permanently into the sea where the Cyrenae lived, and they may have been killed suddenly by an influx of pure salt- water, which invaded the spot when the river was low, or when a subsidence of land took place. Traced in one direction, or eastward towards Herne Bay, the Woolwich beds a.s.sume more and more of a marine character; while in an opposite, or south-western direction, they become, as near Chelsea and other places, more fresh-water, and contain Unio, Paludina, and layers of lignite, so that the land drained by the ancient river seems clearly to have been to the south-west of the present site of the metropolis.

FLUVIATILE BEDS UNDERLYING DEEP-SEA STRATA.

Before the minds of geologists had become familiar with the theory of the gradual sinking of land, and its conversion into sea at different periods, and the consequent change from shallow to deep water, the fluviatile and littoral character of this inferior group appeared strange and anomalous. After pa.s.sing through hundreds of feet of London clay, proved by its fossils to have been deposited in deep salt-water, we arrive at beds of fluviatile origin, and a.s.sociated with them ma.s.ses of s.h.i.+ngle, attaining at Blackheath, near London, a thickness of 50 feet. These s.h.i.+ngle banks are probably of marine origin, but they indicate the proximity of land, and the existence of a sh.o.r.e where the flints of the chalk were rolled into sand and pebbles, and spread over a wide s.p.a.ce. We have, therefore, first, as before stated, evidence of oscillations of level during the acc.u.mulation of the Woolwich series, then of a great submergence, which allowed a marine deposit 500 thick to be laid over the antecedent beds of fresh and brackish water origin.

THANET SANDS (C.3 TABLE 16.1).

The Woolwich or plastic clay above described may often be seen in the Hamps.h.i.+re basin in actual contact with the chalk, const.i.tuting in such places the lowest member of the British Eocene series. But at other points another formation of marine origin, characterised by a somewhat different a.s.semblage of organic remains, has been shown by Mr. Prestwich to intervene between the chalk and the Woolwich series. For these beds he has proposed the name of "Thanet Sands,"

because they are well seen in the Isle of Thanet, in the northern part of Kent, and on the sea-coast between Herne Bay and the Reculvers, where they consist of sands with a few concretionary ma.s.ses of sandstone, and contain, among other fossils, Pholadomya cuneata, Cyprina morrisii, Corbula longirostris, Scalaria Bowerbankii, etc. The greatest thickness of these beds is 90 feet.

UPPER EOCENE FORMATIONS OF FRANCE.

The tertiary formations in the neighbourhood of Paris consist of a series of marine and fresh-water strata, alternating with each other, and filling up a depression in the chalk. The area which they occupy has been called the Paris Basin, and is about 180 miles in its greatest length from north to south, and about 90 miles in breadth from east to west. MM. Cuvier and Brongniart attempted, in 1810, to distinguish five different groups, comprising three fresh-water and two marine, which were supposed to imply that the waters of the ocean, and of rivers and lakes, had been by turns admitted into and excluded from the same area. Investigations since made in the Hamps.h.i.+re and London basins have rather tended to confirm these views, at least so far as to show that since the commencement of the Eocene period there have been great movements of the bed of the sea, and of the adjoining lands, and that the superposition of deep-sea to shallow-water deposits (the London Clay, for example, to the Woolwich beds) can only be explained by referring to such movements. It appears, notwithstanding, from the researches of M. Constant Prevost, that some of the minor alternations and intermixtures of fresh-water and marine deposits, in the Paris basin, may be accounted for without such changes of level, by imagining both to have been simultaneously in progress, in the same bay of the same sea, or a gulf into which many rivers entered.

GYPSEOUS SERIES OF MONTMARTRE (A.1, TABLE 16.1).

To enlarge on the numerous subdivisions of the Parisian strata would lead me beyond my present limits; I shall therefore give some examples only of the most important formations. Beneath the Gres de Fontainebleau, belonging to the Lower Miocene period, as before stated, we find, in the neighbourhood of Paris, a series of white and green marls, with subordinate beds of gypsum. These are most largely developed in the central parts of the Paris basin, and, among other places, in the hill of Montmartre, where its fossils were first studied by Cuvier.

The gypsum quarried there for the manufacture of plaster of Paris occurs as a granular crystalline rock, and, together with the a.s.sociated marls, contains land and fluviatile sh.e.l.ls, together with the bones and skeletons of birds and quadrupeds. Several land-plants are also met with, among which are fine specimens of the fan-palm or palmetto tribe (Flabellaria). The remains also of fresh-water fish, and of crocodiles and other reptiles, occur in the gypsum. The skeletons of mammalia are usually isolated, often entire, the most delicate extremities being preserved; as if the carca.s.ses, clothed with their flesh and skin, had been floated down soon after death, and while they were still swollen by the gases generated by their first decomposition. The few accompanying sh.e.l.ls are of those light kinds which frequently float on the surface of rivers, together with wood.

In this formation the relics of about fifty species of quadrupeds, including the genera Palaeotherium (see Figure 174), Anoplotherium (see Figure 218), and others, have been found, all extinct, and nearly four-fifths of them belonging to the Perissodactyle or odd-toed division of the order Pachydermata, which now contains only four living genera, namely, rhinoceros, tapir, horse, and hyrax.

With them a few carnivorous animals are a.s.sociated, among which are the Hyaenodon dasyuroides, a species of dog, Canis Parisiensis, and a weasel, Cynodon Parisiensis. Of the Rodentia are found a squirrel; of the Cheiroptera, a bat; while the Marsupalia (an order now confined to America, Australia, and some contiguous islands) are represented by an opossum.

Of birds, about ten species have been ascertained, the skeletons of some of which are entire. None of them are referable to existing species. (Cuvier, Oss.

Foss. tome 3 page 255.) The same remark, according to MM. Cuvier and Aga.s.siz, applies both to the reptiles and fish. Among the last are crocodiles and tortoises of the genera Emys and Trionyx.

(FIGURE 218. Xiphodon gracile, or Anoplotherium gracile, Cuvier. Restored outline.)

The tribe of land quadrupeds most abundant in this formation is such as now inhabits alluvial plains and marshes, and the banks of rivers and lakes, a cla.s.s most exposed to suffer by river inundations. Among these were several species of Palaeotherium, a genus before alluded to. These were a.s.sociated with the Anoplotherium, a tribe intermediate between pachyderms and ruminants. One of the three divisions of this family was called by Cuvier Xiphodon. Their forms were slender and elegant, and one, named Xiphodon gracile (Figure 218), was about the size of the chamois; and Cuvier inferred from the skeleton that it was as light, graceful, and agile as the gazelle.

FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS.

There are three superimposed ma.s.ses of gypsum in the neighbourhood of Paris, separated by intervening deposits of laminated marl. In the uppermost of the three, in the valley of Montmorency, M. Desnoyers discovered in 1859 many footprints of animals occurring at no less than six different levels. (Sur des Empreintes de Pas d'Animaux par M. J. Desnoyers. Compte rendu de l'Inst.i.tut 1859.) The gypsum to which they belong varies from thirty to fifty feet in thickness, and is that which has yielded to the naturalist the largest number of bones and skeletons of mammalia, birds, and reptiles. I visited the quarries, soon after the discovery was made known, with M. Desnoyers, who also showed me large slabs in the Museum at Paris, where, on the upper planes of stratification, the indented foot-marks were seen, while corresponding casts in relief appeared on the lower surfaces of the strata of gypsum which were immediately superimposed. A thin film of marl, which before it was dried and condensed by pressure must have represented a much thicker layer of soft mud, intervened between the beds of solid gypsum. On this mud the animals had trodden, and made impressions which had penetrated to the gypseous ma.s.s below, then evidently unconsolidated. Tracks of the Anoplotherium with its bisulcate hoof, and the trilobed footprints of Palaeotherium, were seen of different sizes, corresponding to those of several species of these genera which Cuvier had reconstructed, while in the same beds were foot-marks of carnivorous mammalia. The tracks also of fluviatile, lacustrine, and terrestrial tortoises (Emys, Trionyx, etc.) were discovered, also those of crocodiles, iguanas, geckos, and great batrachians, and the footprints of a huge bird, apparently a wader, of the size of the gastornis, to be mentioned in the sequel. There were likewise the impressions of the feet of other creatures, some of them clearly distinguishable from any of the fifty extinct types of mammalia of which the bones have been found in the Paris gypsum. The whole a.s.semblage, says Desnoyers, indicate the sh.o.r.es of a lake, or several small lakes communicating with each other, on the borders of which many species of pachyderms wandered, and beasts of prey which occasionally devoured them. The tooth-marks of these last had been detected by palaeontologists long before on the bones and skulls of Paleotheres entombed in the gypsum.

IMPERFECTION OF THE RECORD.