Across Unknown South America Part 3

One reason why coffee cultivation is so popular in Brazil is because of the general belief that no trouble is required to look after the trees--a very mistaken notion indeed. There is a marked difference between plantations carefully looked after and those that are not. More than usual care must be taken to select the seed for new plantations. The young plants must get strong in a nursery and then be transplanted into proper soil, the prudent distance between trees being generally from 9 to 12 ft. For the convenience of collecting the beans and keeping the soil clean, a perfect alignment in all directions is necessary. The most suitable month for planting coffee in Brazil, according to the authority of Dr. Dafert, is the month of July.

Great care must be taken of the trees themselves and of the soil around the trees, which must be kept clean and absolutely free from gra.s.s. The capillary roots of the trees extending horizontally near the surface of the soil are much affected by the presence of any other vegetation, and by the collection of insects which this produces and harbours. Frost, rain, and the heat of the sun naturally affect the trees more when the soil is dirty than when kept clean. Many of the coffee estates suffer considerably from insufficient labour. The effects of this are quickly visible on the trees. Artificial fertilization is useful, even necessary after a number of years, and so is careful pruning in order to keep the trees healthy, strong and clean.

[Ill.u.s.tration: A Beautiful Waterfall at Theresopolis.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Antonio Prado's Coffee Estate.]

Coffee trees have many natural enemies--chiefly vegetable and animal parasites--which mostly attack the leaves. The _Ramularia Goeldiana_, a parasite not unlike the _Cercospora Coffeicola_, is one of the worst, and undoubtedly the chief offender in Brazil, although great is the number of insects prejudicial to the trees. The most terrible of all, perhaps, are the ants and termites, such as the _Termes opacus_, which attack and destroy the roots of young trees. The _cupim_ (_Termes alb.u.m_) or white ant, and the _carregador_ or _Sauba_, a giant ant with which we shall get fully acquainted later on our journey, are implacable enemies of all plants. Also the _quen-quen_, another kind of ant. These ants are so numerous that it is almost an impossibility to extirpate them. Various ways are suggested for their destruction, but none are really effective.

Certain larvae, flies and cochinilla, owing to their sucking habits, deposit on the leaves and branches a viscous sugary substance, which, on account of the heat, causes fermentation known locally as _fumagina_.

This produces great damage. Birds pick and destroy the berries when ripe; and caterpillars are responsible for the absolute devastation of many coffee districts in the Rio de Janeiro and So Paulo States. Other pests of the _Heteroptera_ type attack the roots to such an extent as to cause the death of the trees.

Among the diseases of the trees are the _Aphelencus Coffeae_ and the _Loranthus brasiliensis_--the latter a terrible parasite which quickly envelops the stem and branches of the tree and ends by killing it.

The collection of the berries is the busiest process in the fazendas, and has to be performed with considerable care, for some of the berries are already ripe and dried when others hidden under the branches have not yet reached the required degree of maturity. An experienced hand can collect from 400 to 450 litres of coffee berries per day. It takes an average of 100 litres of coffee berries to produce 15 kilos of prepared coffee beans ready to be s.h.i.+pped. The crop is not the same every year. After one plentiful crop there generally succeeds one year, sometimes two or three, of poor--almost insignificant--collections, varying according to the care that is taken of the trees and the soil.

When once the coffee has been collected and transported to the fazenda in baskets, blankets and sheets, it is necessary to remove the skin and viscous pulpy matter which envelop the beans. This is done partly by maceration in water tanks, and afterwards by drying upon extensive flat terraces, tiled or cemented, and locally called _terreiro_. The process of drying by machinery has not been adopted in Brazil; princ.i.p.ally because of its high cost. The coffee is first placed for some days in mounds on the terraces, until fermentation of the outer skin begins, which afterwards hastens desiccation when coffee is spread flat in a thin layer on the terraces. When once the coffee berries have been freed from their pulpy envelope and skin, the desiccation--if the weather is propitious--takes place in a few days. Care must be taken to move the berries constantly, so that they dry evenly on all sides, as perfect desiccation is necessary in order to preserve the coffee in good condition after it is packed for s.h.i.+pment.

There are two ways of preparing coffee for export--the humid and the dry.

In the humid process the berries are placed in a special machine called _despolpadore_, which leaves the beans merely covered and held together in couples by the membrane immediately enclosing them after the skin and viscous sugary coating have been removed. Those coffees are called in commerce, _lavados_, or washed.

The dry process consists, after the berries have been skinned and dried, in removing part of the pulp and membrane in a special machine and a series of ventilators. They are then quite ready for export.

The preparation of coffee from the drying terraces is slightly more complicated. The coffee pa.s.ses through a first ventilator, which frees it from impurities such as earth, stems, stones, filaments, etc.; from this it is conveyed by means of an elevator into the _descascador_, where the membrane is removed. Subsequently it pa.s.ses through a series of other ventilators, which eliminate whatever impurities have remained and convey the coffee into a polis.h.i.+ng machine (_brunidor_). There the coffee is subjected to violent friction, which not only removes the last atoms of impurity but gives the beans a finis.h.i.+ng polish. The coffee is then ready for the market.

I spent a most instructive day inspecting the fazenda of Conselheiro Antonio Prado and having things clearly explained by his intelligent overseer, Mr. Henrique P. Ribeiro.

From that place I drove across country, through endless groves of coffee trees--for miles and miles--as far as the next great coffee estate, belonging to the Dumont Company, an English concern, with an authorized capital of 800,000, the estates being valued at 1,200,000. It is not often one sees an estate so beautifully managed and looked after in a country like Brazil. The buildings, the machinery, the "drying terraces,"

everything was in capital order. To indicate on what scale the Company does business, it will be sufficient to state that in 1911 the coffee crop amounted to 109,368 cwts., which realized on a gross average 56_s._ 10_d._ per cwt. This crop was not as plentiful as in the previous year, when 110,558 cwts. were harvested. The gross profit for the year up to June 21st, 1911, was 123,811 2_s._ 5_d._, which, less London charges, still showed the substantial sum of 119,387 11_s._ 8_d._ There had been a considerable rise in the rate at which coffee was sold in 1911--viz., 56_s._ 10_d._ per cwt. as compared with 41_s._ 8_d._ the previous year; but notwithstanding the high price, the high rate of exchange, and the cost of laying the coffee down in London--which had risen on the estate by 1_s._ 11_d._ and by 1_s._ 3_d._ in respect of charges between the estate and London, the Company had been able to earn a profit of 20_s._ 4_d._ per cwt.

I was taken round the estate by Mr. J. A. Davy, the general manager, whose good and sensible work was noticeable at every turn. The trees seemed in excellent condition and likely to have a long life on the specially suitable rich red soil, and with sufficient breathing s.p.a.ce allowed to maintain them in good health. The soil was of such unusual richness in that particular spot that no artificial stimulation was required in order to keep the trees healthy and vigorous. One could walk for miles and miles along the beautiful groves of coffee trees, clean-looking with their rich deep green foliage.

They seemed to have no great difficulty on the Dumont estate in obtaining sufficient labour--greatly, I think, owing to the fair way in which labourers were treated. Mr. Davy told me that over an area of 13,261 acres a crop had been maintained which averaged 8 cwts. per acre.

Experiments have also been made on the Dumont Estate (at an elevation of 2,100 ft. above the sea level)--chiefly, I believe, to satisfy the wish of shareholders in London--in the cultivation of rubber, but it did not prove a success--as was, after all, to be expected. It is not easy to make the majority of people understand that coffee grows l.u.s.tily in that particular part of the State of So Paulo mainly because of the eminently suitable quality of the soil; but it does not at all follow that soil or climatic conditions which are good for coffee are suitable for rubber trees, or vice versa. In the case of the Dumont Estates, although the best possible land was chosen and three different varieties of rubber--the Para, Ceara and the Castilloa were experimented with, it was soon discovered that only one kind--the Ceara--attained any growth at all, and this gave very little latex--owing undoubtedly to the nature of the soil and the climate. The cost of extracting the latex was prohibitive. With wages at four s.h.i.+llings a day a man could collect about one-third of a pound of latex a day. Rubber trees could, in that region, not be expected to produce more than one-fifth of a pound of rubber a year, so that the cost of collecting and s.h.i.+pping rubber from ten-year-old trees would amount to 3_s._ 3_d._ per lb., without counting the cost of planting and upkeep.

By a special train on the Dumont Railway line I travelled across beautiful country--all coffee plantations--the property of the Dumont Company and of Colonel Schmidt, the "Coffee King," whose magnificent estate lies along the Dumont Railway line. I regretted that I could not visit this great estate also, but I was most anxious to get on with my journey and get away as soon as possible from civilization. It was pleasant to see that no rivalry existed between the various larger estates, and I learnt that the Dumont Railway actually carried--for a consideration, naturally--all the coffee from the Schmidt Estate to the Ribero Preto station on the Mogyana Railway.

CHAPTER III

On the Mogyana Railway

I ARRIVED at Ribero Preto at 3.45 p.m. on March 29th. Ribero Preto--421 kil. N.N.W. of So Paulo and 500 kil. from Santos--is without doubt the most important commercial centre in the northern part of the State of So Paulo, and is a handsome active city, neat and clean-looking, with an Italian, Spanish and Portuguese population of some 25,000 souls. Its elevation above the sea level is 1,950 ft. The people of Ribero Preto subsist chiefly on the coffee industry. There are one or two theatres in the city, the princ.i.p.al being a provincial one. There are several hotels of various degrees of cleanliness and several industrial establishments.

Unlike other cities of the interior, Ribero Preto boasts of a good supply of _agua potavel_ (drinking water), and the town is lighted by the electric light.

The value of land in the vicinity of Ribero Preto varies from 300 milreis to 1,500 milreis for the _alqueire_, a price far superior to that of other localities on the same line, where cultivated land can be purchased at 300 milreis an _alqueire_ and pasture land at 100 milreis.

At Ribero Preto I was to leave the Dumont Railway. Special arrangements had been made for me to meet at that station a special Administration car which was to be attached to the ordinary express train on the Mogyana Railway line.

I had been warned at the Dumont Estate that a bra.s.s band had been sent to the Ribero Preto station, where some notabilities were awaiting my arrival in order to greet me with the usual speeches of welcome. As I particularly dislike public speaking and publicity, I managed to mix unseen among the crowd--they expecting to see an explorer fully armed and in khaki clothes of special cut as represented in ill.u.s.trated papers. It was with some relief that I saw them departing, with disappointed faces, and with their bra.s.s instruments, big drums and all, after they had entered the luxurious special car placed at my disposal by the Mogyana Railway and found it empty--I humbly watching the proceedings some distance away from the platform.

Thanks to the splendid arrangements which had been made for me by Dr.

Jose Pereira Reboncas, the President of the Mogyana, I was able to take a most instructive journey on that line, the Traffic Superintendent, Mr.

Vicente Bittencourt, having been instructed to accompany me and furnish all possible information.

A few words of praise are justly due to the Mogyana line for the excellence of the service and the perfection of the rolling stock. I inspected the entire train and was amazed to find such beautiful and comfortable carriages, provided with the latest improvements for pa.s.sengers of all cla.s.ses. It is seldom I have seen in any country a train look so "smart" as the one in which I travelled from Ribero Preto to the terminus of the line. The appointments of every kind were perfect, the train ran in excellent time, and very smoothly over well-laid rails. The special car in which I travelled was "palatial and replete with every comfort," if I may use the stock words invariably applied to railway travelling.

Here are a few interesting points regarding the Mogyana Railway.

By a provincial law (So Paulo) of March 21st, 1872, a guaranteed interest of 7 per cent on a capital of 3,000,000 milreis was granted for ninety years for the construction of a railway of 1 metre gauge from Campinas to Mogymirim, and of a branch line to Amparo, to the north-east of Campinas and due east of Inguary. By a similar law of March 20th, 1875, a guaranteed interest was granted for thirty years as to the capital of 2,500,000 milreis for a prolongation of the line to Casa Blanca.

By a provincial law (Minas Geraes) of October 1st, 1881, another guarantee was granted of 7 per cent for thirty years, upon a maximum capital of 5,000,000 milreis, for a continuation of the railway through the provincial territory from the right bank of the Rio Grande to the left bank of the Paranahyba River. Finally, by a provincial contract of Minas Geraes of October, 1884, a further guarantee was granted of 7 per cent for thirty years, on a maximum capital of 5,000,000 milreis, for the construction of the prolongation of the railway from its terminal point at the Rio Grande as far as the Paranahyba via the city of Uberaba.

In view of other important concessions obtained, one may consider that the Mogyana Company is perhaps the most important railway concern in Brazil, up to the present time. It does great credit to Brazilians that the railway was constructed almost entirely by capital raised on bonds in Brazil itself, the only foreign loan issued in London being a sum raised amounting merely to 341,000 at an interest of 5 per cent. Between the years 1879 and 1886 the Company returned to the Government of So Paulo the interests received, thus liquidating its debt. A decree of October 18th, 1890, fixed the capital spent on the Rio Grande line and a branch to Caldas at 4,300,000 milreis gold and 1,853,857.750 milreis paper as guarantee of the interest of 6 per cent conceded by the National Treasury.

In the year 1900 the value of interests received amounted to 3,190,520.418 milreis in paper, and 1,963,787.300 milreis in gold, out of which 544,787.300 milreis were in debenture bonds. On the same date the value of interests repaid to the National Treasury amounted to 1,606,578.581 milreis in paper currency.

The federalized lines of the Company were: from Ribero Preto to Rio Grande (concession of 1883); from Rio Grande to Araguary (concession of 1890); with a total extension of 472 kil., and a branch line from Cascavel to Poco de Caldas, 77 kil., the last 17 kil. of which were in the Province of Minas Geraes. The extension from Rio Grande to Araguary, 282 kil., was also situated in the Province of Minas Geraes.

Having dodged the expectant crowd at the station unnoticed, I did not go with the Traffic Superintendent, Mr. Vicente Bittencourt, into the luxurious special car as the train was steaming out of the Ribero Preto station, but preferred to travel in front of the engine so as to get a full view of the beautiful scenery along the line. We went at a good speed over gentle curves rounding hill-sides, the gra.s.s of which bent under a light breeze. Here and there stood a minute white cottage--almost toy-like--where coffee gatherers lived. On the left we had a grandiose undulating region--what the Americans would call "rolling country"--combed into thousands of parallel lines of coffee trees, interrupted at intervals by extensive stretches of light green grazing land. Only now and then, as the engine puffed and throbbed under me, did I notice a rectangle of dried brownish yellow, where the farmers had grown their Indian corn. These patches were a great contrast to the interminable ma.s.s of rich dark green of the coffee trees and the light green of the prairies.

Near these patches--prominently noticeable in the landscape because so scarce--one invariably saw groups of low whitewashed or red-painted houses, mere humble sheds. Where the land was not yet under cultivation--quite a lot of it--low scrub and stunted trees far apart dotted the landscape.

On nearing villages, as the express dashed through, goats stampeded in all directions: sleepy women and men looked at the train half dazed as it went by, and children, with quite a characteristic gesture, screened their eyes with their elbows to protect them from the dust and wind the train produced. I was astonished to notice how many fair-haired children one saw--curious indeed in a population of Latin races and negroes. That golden hair, however, seemed gradually to grow darker, and became almost black in the older people.

Hideous barbed-wire fences gave a certain air of civilization to those parts, but the landscape was nevertheless getting desolate as we proceeded farther north. Except in the immediate vicinity of habitations, one felt the absolute lack of animal life. Only rarely did we see a black bird of extraordinary elongated form dash frightened across the railway line, much too fast for me to identify to which family it belonged.

One could not help being impressed by the immensity of the landscape, endless sweeping undulation after undulation spreading before us, but not a real mountain in sight. It was like a solid ocean of magnified proportions. Just above the horizon-line a large acc.u.mulation of globular clouds of immaculate white intensified the interesting colour-scheme of greens and yellows on the earth's surface to its full value by contrast.

The large proportion of cultivated land which had impressed me so much in the vicinity of Ribero Preto gradually diminished; and at sunset, by the time we had reached Batataes, only 48 kil. farther on, hardly any more coffee plantations were visible. Only fields of short gra.s.s spread before us on all sides. An occasional bunch of trees hiding a humble farmhouse could be perceived here and there, but no other sign of life upon the immense, silent, green undulations of symmetric curves, not unlike enormous waves of the sea.

Farther north upon the Mogyana line, land seemed to diminish in price considerably. Its quality was not so good, especially for coffee plantations. At Batataes, for instance, 548 kil. by rail from the coast, prices were cheaper. Good land for cultivation could be obtained at 200 milreis, and campos at 25 milreis an alqueire.

Such low prices were general north of Ribero Preto, although naturally they were likely to increase as the country got slowly opened up with new roads and railroads. Away from the railway the price of land was much lower.

One thing that particularly struck the traveller straying in those parts was the poverty of all the minor towns and villages. The industrial development of the larger settlements consisted merely of a distillery of "fire-water" (_aguardente_), or, if the city were modern and up-to-date, of a brewery, the only two profitable industries in those regions.

Batataes--according to Brazilian statistics--was stated to "_deve ter_"--"it should have perhaps" some 5,000 inhabitants. The zone around it was said to be suitable for coffee growing; in fact, the munic.i.p.ality possessed much machinery for the preparation of coffee.

At 7.50 p.m. punctually--as she was due--the engine steamed into the Franca station, where the train was to halt for the night. The pa.s.senger traffic was not yet sufficiently extensive on that line to allow trains to travel continuously during the twenty-four hours. Pa.s.senger trains ran only in the daytime.

I was treated with the greatest consideration while travelling on the Mogyana. Not only was the Administration saloon car, containing a comfortable bedroom, placed at my disposal, but telegrams had been sent all along the line with orders to supply me with anything I required. At Franca, much to my surprise, I found an imposing dinner of sixteen courses waiting for me in the station hotel--with repeated apologies that they were distressed they could not produce more, as the telegram announcing my arrival had been received late. On no account whatever was I allowed--as I wished--to pay for anything. I was rather interested to watch in the station restaurant the wonderful mixture of people who had a.s.sembled: priests, monks, railway porters, commercial travellers--some black, some white, some a combination of the two--all sitting together in a jovial manner sipping coffee or devouring a meal.

The city of Franca itself, 2 kil. away from the station, 617 kil. from the sea at Santos, 528 kil. from So Paulo, was in the most remote northerly corner of the State of So Paulo, and had a population of 9,000 people or thereabout. The electric light had been installed in the town, and there was a theatre. Much difficulty was experienced in obtaining sufficient water for the needs of the population. In the munic.i.p.ality there existed a number of machines for use in the rice and the coffee culture, as well as two steam saws, a b.u.t.ter, and a sugar factory.

There were several trails--so-called roads--branching off from this town and leading to Borda de Matta, Garimpo das Canoas, Potrocinio do Sapucahy, S. Jose da Bella Vista, etc.