The Singularity Is Near_ When Humans Transcend Biology Part 35

186. 186. Jason Lohn quoted in NASA news release "NASA 'Evolutionary' Software Automatically Designs Antenna," http://www.nasa.gov/lb/centers/ames/news/releases/2004/04_55AR.html. Jason Lohn quoted in NASA news release "NASA 'Evolutionary' Software Automatically Designs Antenna," http://www.nasa.gov/lb/centers/ames/news/releases/2004/04_55AR.html.

187. 187. Robert Roy Britt, "Automatic Astronomy: New Robotic Telescopes See and Think," June 4, 2003, http://www.s.p.a.ce.com/businesstechnology/technology/automated_astronomy_030604.html. Robert Roy Britt, "Automatic Astronomy: New Robotic Telescopes See and Think," June 4, 2003, http://www.s.p.a.ce.com/businesstechnology/technology/automated_astronomy_030604.html.

188. 188. H. Keith Melton, "Spies in the Digital Age," http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/spies/melton.essay. H. Keith Melton, "Spies in the Digital Age," http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/spies/melton.essay.

189. 189. "United Therapeutics (UT) is a biotechnology company focused on developing chronic therapies for life-threatening conditions in three therapeutic areas: cardiovascular, oncology and infectious diseases" (http://www.unither.com). Kurzweil Technologies is working with UT to develop pattern recognition-based a.n.a.lysis from either "Holter" monitoring (twenty-four-hour recordings) or "Event" monitoring (thirty days or more). "United Therapeutics (UT) is a biotechnology company focused on developing chronic therapies for life-threatening conditions in three therapeutic areas: cardiovascular, oncology and infectious diseases" (http://www.unither.com). Kurzweil Technologies is working with UT to develop pattern recognition-based a.n.a.lysis from either "Holter" monitoring (twenty-four-hour recordings) or "Event" monitoring (thirty days or more).

190. 190. Kristen Philipkoski, "A Map That Maps Gene Functions," Kristen Philipkoski, "A Map That Maps Gene Functions," Wired News Wired News, May 28, 2002, http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,52723,00.html.

191. 191. Jennifer Ouellette, "Bioinformatics Moves into the Mainstream," Jennifer Ouellette, "Bioinformatics Moves into the Mainstream," The Industrial Physicist The Industrial Physicist (OctoberNovember 2003), http://www.sciencemasters.com/bioinformatics.pdf. (OctoberNovember 2003), http://www.sciencemasters.com/bioinformatics.pdf.

192. 192. Port, Arndt, and Carey, "Smart Tools." Port, Arndt, and Carey, "Smart Tools."

193. 193. "Protein Patterns in Blood May Predict Prostate Cancer Diagnosis," National Cancer Inst.i.tute, October 15, 2002, http://www.nci.nih.gov/newscenter/ProstateProteomics, reporting on Emanuel F. Petricoin et al., "Serum Proteomic Patterns for Detection of Prostate Cancer," "Protein Patterns in Blood May Predict Prostate Cancer Diagnosis," National Cancer Inst.i.tute, October 15, 2002, http://www.nci.nih.gov/newscenter/ProstateProteomics, reporting on Emanuel F. Petricoin et al., "Serum Proteomic Patterns for Detection of Prostate Cancer," Journal of the National Cancer Inst.i.tute Journal of the National Cancer Inst.i.tute 94 (2002): 157678. 94 (2002): 157678.

194. 194. Charlene Laino, "New Blood Test Spots Cancer," December 13, 2002, http://my.webmd.com/content/Article/56/65831.htm; Emanuel F. Petricoin III et al., "Use of Proteomic Patterns in Serum to Identify Ovarian Cancer," Charlene Laino, "New Blood Test Spots Cancer," December 13, 2002, http://my.webmd.com/content/Article/56/65831.htm; Emanuel F. Petricoin III et al., "Use of Proteomic Patterns in Serum to Identify Ovarian Cancer," Lancet Lancet 359.9306 (February 16, 2002): 57277. 359.9306 (February 16, 2002): 57277.

195. 195. For information of TriPath's FocalPoint, see "Make a Diagnosis," For information of TriPath's FocalPoint, see "Make a Diagnosis," Wired Wired, October 2003, http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.03/everywhere.html?pg=5. Mark Hagland, "Doctors' Orders," January 2003, http://www.healthcare-informatics.com/issues/2003/01_03/cpoe.htm.

196. 196. Ross D. King et al., "Functional Genomic Hypothesis Generation and Experimentation by a Robot Scientist," Ross D. King et al., "Functional Genomic Hypothesis Generation and Experimentation by a Robot Scientist," Nature Nature 427 (January 15,2004): 24752. 427 (January 15,2004): 24752.

197. 197. Port, Arndt, and Carey, "Smart Tools." Port, Arndt, and Carey, "Smart Tools."

198. 198. "Future Route Releases AI-Based Fraud Detection Product," August 18, 2004, http://www.finextra.com/fullstory.asp?id=12365. "Future Route Releases AI-Based Fraud Detection Product," August 18, 2004, http://www.finextra.com/fullstory.asp?id=12365.

199. 199. John Hackett, "Computers Are Learning the Business," John Hackett, "Computers Are Learning the Business," CollectionsWorld CollectionsWorld, April 24, 2001, http://www.creditcollectionsworld.com/news/042401_2.htm.

200. 200. "Innovative Use of Artificial Intelligence, Monitoring NASDAQ for Potential Insider Trading and Fraud," AAAI press release, July 30, 2003, http://www.aaai.org/Pressroom/Releases/release-03-0730.html. "Innovative Use of Artificial Intelligence, Monitoring NASDAQ for Potential Insider Trading and Fraud," AAAI press release, July 30, 2003, http://www.aaai.org/Pressroom/Releases/release-03-0730.html.

201. 201. "Adaptive Learning, Fly the Brainy Skies," "Adaptive Learning, Fly the Brainy Skies," Wired News Wired News, March 2002, http://www.wired.com/wired/ rchive/10.03/everywhere.html?pg=2.

202. 202. "Introduction to Artificial Intelligence," EL 629, Maxwell Air Force Base, Air University Library course, http://www.au.af.mil/au/aul/school/acsc/ai02.htm. Sam Williams, "Computer, Heal Thyself," "Introduction to Artificial Intelligence," EL 629, Maxwell Air Force Base, Air University Library course, http://www.au.af.mil/au/aul/school/acsc/ai02.htm. Sam Williams, "Computer, Heal Thyself," Salon.com Salon.com, July 12,2004, http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/2004/07/12/self_healing_computing/index_np.html.

203. 203. See http://www.Seegrid.com. Disclosure: The author is an investor in Seegrid and a member of its board of directors. See http://www.Seegrid.com. Disclosure: The author is an investor in Seegrid and a member of its board of directors.

204. 204. No Hands Across America Web site, http://cart.frc.ri.cmu.edu/users/hpm/project.archive/reference.file/nhaa.html, and "Carnegie Mellon Researchers Will Prove Autonomous Driving Technologies During a 3,000 Mile, Hands-off-the-Wheel Trip from Pittsburgh to San Diego," Carnegie Mellon press release, http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/tjochem/www/nhaa/official_press_release.html; Robert J. Derocher, "Almost Human," September 2001, http://www.insight-mag.com/insight/01/09/col-2-pt-1-ClickCulture.htm. No Hands Across America Web site, http://cart.frc.ri.cmu.edu/users/hpm/project.archive/reference.file/nhaa.html, and "Carnegie Mellon Researchers Will Prove Autonomous Driving Technologies During a 3,000 Mile, Hands-off-the-Wheel Trip from Pittsburgh to San Diego," Carnegie Mellon press release, http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/tjochem/www/nhaa/official_press_release.html; Robert J. Derocher, "Almost Human," September 2001, http://www.insight-mag.com/insight/01/09/col-2-pt-1-ClickCulture.htm.

205. 205. "Search and Rescue Robots," a.s.sociated Press, September 3, 2004, http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/09/02/1093939058792.html?oneclick=true. "Search and Rescue Robots," a.s.sociated Press, September 3, 2004, http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/09/02/1093939058792.html?oneclick=true.

206. 206. "From Factoids to Facts," "From Factoids to Facts," Economist Economist, August 26, 2004, http://www.economist.com/science/displayStory.cfm?story _id=3127462.

207. 207. Joe McCool, "Voice Recognition, It Pays to Talk," May 2003, http://www.bcs.org/BCS/Products/Publications/JournalsAndMagazines/ComputerBulletin/OnlineArchive/may03/voicerecognition.htm. Joe McCool, "Voice Recognition, It Pays to Talk," May 2003, http://www.bcs.org/BCS/Products/Publications/JournalsAndMagazines/ComputerBulletin/OnlineArchive/may03/voicerecognition.htm.

208. 208. John Gartner, "Finally a Car That Talks Back," John Gartner, "Finally a Car That Talks Back," Wired News Wired News, September 2, 2004, http://www.wired.com/news/autotech/0,2554,64809,00.html?tw=wn_14techhead.

209. 209. "Computer Language Translation System Romances the Rosetta Stone," Information Sciences Inst.i.tute, USC School of Engineering (July 24, 2003), http://www.usc.edu/isinews/stories/102.html. "Computer Language Translation System Romances the Rosetta Stone," Information Sciences Inst.i.tute, USC School of Engineering (July 24, 2003), http://www.usc.edu/isinews/stories/102.html.

210. 210. Torsten Reil quoted in Steven Johnson, "Darwin in a Box," Torsten Reil quoted in Steven Johnson, "Darwin in a Box," Discover Discover 24.8 (August 2003), http://www.discover.com/issues/aug-03/departments/feattech/. 24.8 (August 2003), http://www.discover.com/issues/aug-03/departments/feattech/.

211. 211. "Let Software Catch the Game for You," July 3, 2004, http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996097. "Let Software Catch the Game for You," July 3, 2004, http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996097.

212. 212. Mich.e.l.le Delio, "Breeding Race Cars to Win," Mich.e.l.le Delio, "Breeding Race Cars to Win," Wired News Wired News, June 18, 2004, http://www.wired.com/news/autotech/0,2554,63900,00.html.

213. 213. Marvin Minsky, Marvin Minsky, The Society of Mind The Society of Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988). (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988).

214. 214. Hans Moravec, "When Will Computer Hardware Match the Human Brain?" Hans Moravec, "When Will Computer Hardware Match the Human Brain?" Journal of Evolution and Technology Journal of Evolution and Technology 1 (1998). 1 (1998).

215. 215. Ray Kurzweil, Ray Kurzweil, The Age of Spiritual Machines The Age of Spiritual Machines (New York: Viking, 1999), p. 156. (New York: Viking, 1999), p. 156.

216. 216. See chapter 2, notes 22 and 23, on the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors. See chapter 2, notes 22 and 23, on the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors.

217. 217. "The First Turing Test," http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/loebner-prize.html. "The First Turing Test," http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/loebner-prize.html.

218. 218. Douglas R. Hofstadter, "A Coffeehouse Conversation on the Turing Test," May 1981, included in Ray Kurzweil, Douglas R. Hofstadter, "A Coffeehouse Conversation on the Turing Test," May 1981, included in Ray Kurzweil, The Age of Intelligent Machines The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 80102, http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0318.html. (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 80102, http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0318.html.

219. 219. Ray Kurzweil, "Why I Think I Will Win," and Mitch Kapor, "Why I Think I Will Win," rules: http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0373.html; Kapor: http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0412.html; Kurzweil: http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0374.html; Kurzweil "final word": http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0413.html. Ray Kurzweil, "Why I Think I Will Win," and Mitch Kapor, "Why I Think I Will Win," rules: http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0373.html; Kapor: http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0412.html; Kurzweil: http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0374.html; Kurzweil "final word": http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0413.html.

220. 220. Edward A. Feigenbaum, "Some Challenges and Grand Challenges for Computational Intelligence," Edward A. Feigenbaum, "Some Challenges and Grand Challenges for Computational Intelligence," Journal of the a.s.sociation for Computing Machinery Journal of the a.s.sociation for Computing Machinery 50 (January 2003): 3240. 50 (January 2003): 3240.

221. 221. According to the serial endosymbiosis theory of eukaryotic evolution, the ancestors of mitochondria (the structures in cells that produce energy and have their own genetic code comprising thirteen genes in humans) were originally independent bacteria (that is, not part of another cell) similar to the Daptobacter bacteria of today. "Serial Endosymbiosis Theory," http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Serial%20endosymbiosis%20theory. According to the serial endosymbiosis theory of eukaryotic evolution, the ancestors of mitochondria (the structures in cells that produce energy and have their own genetic code comprising thirteen genes in humans) were originally independent bacteria (that is, not part of another cell) similar to the Daptobacter bacteria of today. "Serial Endosymbiosis Theory," http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Serial%20endosymbiosis%20theory.

Chapter Six: The Impact . . .

1. 1. Donovan, "Season of the Witch," Donovan, "Season of the Witch," Suns.h.i.+ne Superman Suns.h.i.+ne Superman (1966). (1966).

2. 2. Reasons for the reduction in farm workforce include the mechanization that lessened the need for animal and human labor, the economic opportunities that were created in urban areas during World War II, and the development of intensive farming techniques that required less land for comparable yields. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Trends in U.S. Agriculture, http://www.usda.gov/na.s.s/pubs/trends/farmpopulation.htm. Computer-a.s.sisted production, just-in-time production (which results in lower inventory), and offshoring manufacturing to reduce costs are some of the methods that have contributed to the loss of factory jobs. See U.S. Department of Labor, Reasons for the reduction in farm workforce include the mechanization that lessened the need for animal and human labor, the economic opportunities that were created in urban areas during World War II, and the development of intensive farming techniques that required less land for comparable yields. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Trends in U.S. Agriculture, http://www.usda.gov/na.s.s/pubs/trends/farmpopulation.htm. Computer-a.s.sisted production, just-in-time production (which results in lower inventory), and offshoring manufacturing to reduce costs are some of the methods that have contributed to the loss of factory jobs. See U.S. Department of Labor, Futurework: Trends and Challenges of Work in the 21st Century Futurework: Trends and Challenges of Work in the 21st Century, http://www.dol.gov/asp/programs/history/herman/reports/futurework/report.htm.

3. 3. For example, see Natasha Vita-More, "The New [Human] Genre Primo [First] Posthuman," paper delivered at [email protected] Conference, Bilbao, Spain, April 2004, http://www.natasha.cc/paper.htm. For example, see Natasha Vita-More, "The New [Human] Genre Primo [First] Posthuman," paper delivered at Conference, Bilbao, Spain, April 2004, http://www.natasha.cc/paper.htm.

4. 4. Ras.h.i.+d Bas.h.i.+r summarizes in 2004: Ras.h.i.+d Bas.h.i.+r summarizes in 2004: Much progress has also been made in therapeutic micro- and nanotechnology....Some specific examples include (i) silicon-based implantable devices that can be electrically actuated to open an orifice from which preloaded drugs can be released, (ii) silicon devices functionalized with electrically actuated polymers which can act as a valve or muscle to release preloaded drugs, (iii) silicon-based micro-capsules with nano-porous membranes for the release of insulin, (iv) all polymer (or hydrogel) particles which can be preloaded with drugs and then forced to expand upon exposure to specific environmental conditions such as change in pH and release the loaded drug, (v) metal nano-particles coated with recognition proteins, where the particles can be heated with external optical energy and can locally heat and damage unwanted cells and tissue, etc.R. Bas.h.i.+r, "BioMEMS: State-of-the-Art in Detection, Opportunities and Prospects," Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 56.11 (September 22, 2004): 156586. Reprint available at https://engineering.purdue.edu/LIBNA/pdf/publications/BioMEMS%20review%20ADDR%20final.pdf. See also Richard Grayson et al., "A BioMEMS Review: MEMS Technology for Physiologically Integrated Devices," 56.11 (September 22, 2004): 156586. Reprint available at https://engineering.purdue.edu/LIBNA/pdf/publications/BioMEMS%20review%20ADDR%20final.pdf. See also Richard Grayson et al., "A BioMEMS Review: MEMS Technology for Physiologically Integrated Devices," IEEE Proceedings IEEE Proceedings 92 (2004): 621. 92 (2004): 621.

5. 5. For activities of the International Society for BioMEMS and Biomedical Nanotechnology, see http://www.bme.ohio-state.edu/isb. BioMEMS conferences are also listed on the SPIE Web site, http://www.spie.org/Conferences. For activities of the International Society for BioMEMS and Biomedical Nanotechnology, see http://www.bme.ohio-state.edu/isb. BioMEMS conferences are also listed on the SPIE Web site, http://www.spie.org/Conferences.

6. 6. Researchers used a gold nanoparticle to monitor blood sugar in diabetics. Y. Xiao et al., " 'Plugging into Enzymes': Nanowiring of Redox Enzymes by a Gold Nanoparticle," Researchers used a gold nanoparticle to monitor blood sugar in diabetics. Y. Xiao et al., " 'Plugging into Enzymes': Nanowiring of Redox Enzymes by a Gold Nanoparticle," Science Science 299.5614 (March 21, 2003): 187781. Also see T.A. Desai et al., "Abstract Nanoporous Microsystems for Islet Cell Replacement," 299.5614 (March 21, 2003): 187781. Also see T.A. Desai et al., "Abstract Nanoporous Microsystems for Islet Cell Replacement," Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 56.11 (September 22, 2004): 166173. 56.11 (September 22, 2004): 166173.

7. 7. A. Grayson, et al., "Multi-pulse Drug Delivery from a Resorbable Polymeric Microchip Device," A. Grayson, et al., "Multi-pulse Drug Delivery from a Resorbable Polymeric Microchip Device," Nature Materials Nature Materials 2 (2003): 76772. 2 (2003): 76772.

8. 8. Q. Bai and K. D. Wise, "Single-Unit Neural Recording with Active Microelectrode Arrays," Q. Bai and K. D. Wise, "Single-Unit Neural Recording with Active Microelectrode Arrays," IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 48.8 (August 2001): 91120. See the discussion of Wise's work in J. DeGaspari, "Tiny, Tuned, and Unattached," 48.8 (August 2001): 91120. See the discussion of Wise's work in J. DeGaspari, "Tiny, Tuned, and Unattached," Mechanical Engineering Mechanical Engineering (July 2001), http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/july01/features/tinytune/tinytune.html; K. D. Wise, "The Coming Revolution in Wireless Integrated MicroSystems," Digest International Sensor Conference 2001 (Invited Plenary), Seoul, October 2001. Online version (January 13, 2004): http://www.stanford.edu/cla.s.s/ee392s/Stanford392S-kw.pdf. (July 2001), http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/july01/features/tinytune/tinytune.html; K. D. Wise, "The Coming Revolution in Wireless Integrated MicroSystems," Digest International Sensor Conference 2001 (Invited Plenary), Seoul, October 2001. Online version (January 13, 2004): http://www.stanford.edu/cla.s.s/ee392s/Stanford392S-kw.pdf.

9. 9. " 'Microbots' Hunt Down Disease," BBC News, June 13, 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/health/1386440.stm. The micromachines are based on cylindrical magnets; see K. Is.h.i.+yama, M. Sendoh, and K. I. Arai, "Magnetic Micromachines for Medical Applications," " 'Microbots' Hunt Down Disease," BBC News, June 13, 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/health/1386440.stm. The micromachines are based on cylindrical magnets; see K. Is.h.i.+yama, M. Sendoh, and K. I. Arai, "Magnetic Micromachines for Medical Applications," Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 24245, part 1 (April 2002): 4146. 24245, part 1 (April 2002): 4146.

10. 10. See Sandia National Laboratories press release, "Pac-Man-Like Microstructure Interacts with Red Blood Cells," August 15,2001, http://www.sandia.gov/medialNewsRel/NR2001/gobbler.htm. For an industry trade article in response, see D.Wilson, "Microteeth Have a Big Bite," August 17,2001, http://www.e4engineering.com/item.asp?ch=e4_home&type=Features&id=42543. See Sandia National Laboratories press release, "Pac-Man-Like Microstructure Interacts with Red Blood Cells," August 15,2001, http://www.sandia.gov/medialNewsRel/NR2001/gobbler.htm. For an industry trade article in response, see D.Wilson, "Microteeth Have a Big Bite," August 17,2001, http://www.e4engineering.com/item.asp?ch=e4_home&type=Features&id=42543.

11. 11. See Freitas's books See Freitas's books Nanomedicine Nanomedicine, vol. 1, Basic Capabilities Basic Capabilities (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 1999), and (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 1999), and Nanomedicine Nanomedicine, vol. 2A, Biocompatibility Biocompatibility (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 2003), both freely available online at http://www.nanomedicine.com. Also see the Foresight Inst.i.tute's "Nanomedicine" page by Robert Freitas, which lists his current technical works (http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine/index.html#MedNan.o.bots). (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 2003), both freely available online at http://www.nanomedicine.com. Also see the Foresight Inst.i.tute's "Nanomedicine" page by Robert Freitas, which lists his current technical works (http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine/index.html#MedNan.o.bots).

12. 12. Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Exploratory Design in Medical Nanotechnology: A Mechanical Artificial Red Cell," Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Exploratory Design in Medical Nanotechnology: A Mechanical Artificial Red Cell," Artificial Cells, Blood Subst.i.tutes, and Immobilization Biotechnology Artificial Cells, Blood Subst.i.tutes, and Immobilization Biotechnology 26 (1998): 41130, http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine/Respirocytes.html. . 26 (1998): 41130, http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine/Respirocytes.html. .

13. 13. Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Clottocytes: Artificial Mechanical Platelets," Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Clottocytes: Artificial Mechanical Platelets," Foresight Update Foresight Update no. 41, June 30, 2000, pp. 911, http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep018.html. no. 41, June 30, 2000, pp. 911, http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep018.html.

14. 14. Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Microbivores: Artificial Mechanical Phagocytes," Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Microbivores: Artificial Mechanical Phagocytes," Foresight Update Foresight Update no. 44, March 31, 2001, pp. 1113, http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep025.html or http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main==/articles/art0453.html. no. 44, March 31, 2001, pp. 1113, http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep025.html or http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main==/articles/art0453.html.

15. 15. Robert A. Freitas Jr., "The Vasculoid Personal Appliance," Robert A. Freitas Jr., "The Vasculoid Personal Appliance," Foresight Update Foresight Update no. 48, March 31, 2002, pp. 1012, http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep031.html; full paper: Robert A. Freitas Jr. and Christopher J. Phoenix, "Vasculoid: A Personal Nanomedical Appliance to Replace Human Blood," no. 48, March 31, 2002, pp. 1012, http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep031.html; full paper: Robert A. Freitas Jr. and Christopher J. Phoenix, "Vasculoid: A Personal Nanomedical Appliance to Replace Human Blood," Journal of Evolution and Technology Journal of Evolution and Technology 11 (April 2002), http://www.jetpress.org/volume11/vasculoid.html. 11 (April 2002), http://www.jetpress.org/volume11/vasculoid.html.

16. 16. Carlo Montemagno and George Bachand, "Constructing Nanomechanical Devices Powered by Biomolecular Motors," Carlo Montemagno and George Bachand, "Constructing Nanomechanical Devices Powered by Biomolecular Motors," Nanotechnology Nanotechnology 10 (September 1999): 22531; "Biofuel Cell Runs on Metabolic Energy to Power Medical Implants," 10 (September 1999): 22531; "Biofuel Cell Runs on Metabolic Energy to Power Medical Implants," Nature Nature online, Nov. 12, 2002, http://www.nature.com/news/2002/021111/full/021111-1.html, reporting on N. Mano, F. Mao, and A. h.e.l.ler, "A Miniature Biofuel Cell Operating in a Physiological Buffer," online, Nov. 12, 2002, http://www.nature.com/news/2002/021111/full/021111-1.html, reporting on N. Mano, F. Mao, and A. h.e.l.ler, "A Miniature Biofuel Cell Operating in a Physiological Buffer," Journal of the American Chemical Society Journal of the American Chemical Society 124 (2002): 1296263; Carlo Montemagno et al., "Self-a.s.sembled Microdevices Driven by Muscle," 124 (2002): 1296263; Carlo Montemagno et al., "Self-a.s.sembled Microdevices Driven by Muscle," Nature Materials Nature Materials 4.2 (February 2005): 18084, published electronically (January 16, 2005). 4.2 (February 2005): 18084, published electronically (January 16, 2005).

17. 17. See the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Web site (http://www.llnl.gov) for updated information about this initiative, along with the Medtronic MiniMed Web site, http://www.minimed.com/corpinfo/index.shtml. See the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Web site (http://www.llnl.gov) for updated information about this initiative, along with the Medtronic MiniMed Web site, http://www.minimed.com/corpinfo/index.shtml.

18. 18. "Direct brain-to-brain communication ... seem[s] more like the stuff of Hollywood movies than of government reports-but these are among the advances forecast in a recent report by the U.S. National Science Foundation and Department of Commerce." G. Brumfiel, "Futurists Predict Body Swaps for Planet Hops," "Direct brain-to-brain communication ... seem[s] more like the stuff of Hollywood movies than of government reports-but these are among the advances forecast in a recent report by the U.S. National Science Foundation and Department of Commerce." G. Brumfiel, "Futurists Predict Body Swaps for Planet Hops," Nature Nature 418 (July 25, 2002): 359. 418 (July 25, 2002): 359.

Deep brain stimulation, by which electric current from implanted electrodes influences brain function, is an FDA-approved neural implant for Parkinson's disease and is being tested for other neurological disorders. See AI Abbott, "Brain Implants Show Promise Against Obsessive Disorder," Nature Nature 419 (October 17, 2002): 658, and B. Nuttin et al., "Electrical Stimulation in Anterior Limbs of Internal Capsules in Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder," 419 (October 17, 2002): 658, and B. Nuttin et al., "Electrical Stimulation in Anterior Limbs of Internal Capsules in Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder," Lancet Lancet 354.9189 (October 30, 1999): 1526. 354.9189 (October 30, 1999): 1526.

19. 19. See the Retinal Implant Project Web site (http://www.bostonretinalimplant.org), which contains a range of resources including recent papers. One such paper is: R. J.Jensen et al., "Thresholds for Activation of Rabbit Retinal Ganglion Cells with an Ultrafine, Extracellular Microelectrode," See the Retinal Implant Project Web site (http://www.bostonretinalimplant.org), which contains a range of resources including recent papers. One such paper is: R. J.Jensen et al., "Thresholds for Activation of Rabbit Retinal Ganglion Cells with an Ultrafine, Extracellular Microelectrode," Investigative Ophthalmalogy and Visual Science Investigative Ophthalmalogy and Visual Science 44.8 (August 2003): 353343. 44.8 (August 2003): 353343.

20. 20. The FDA approved the Medtronic implant for this purpose in 1997 for only one side of the brain; it was approved for both sides of the brain on January 14, 2002. S. Snider, "FDA Approves Expanded Use of Brain Implant for Parkinson's Disease," U.S. Food and Drug Administration, The FDA approved the Medtronic implant for this purpose in 1997 for only one side of the brain; it was approved for both sides of the brain on January 14, 2002. S. Snider, "FDA Approves Expanded Use of Brain Implant for Parkinson's Disease," U.S. Food and Drug Administration, FDA Talk Paper FDA Talk Paper, January 14, 2002, http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2002/ANS01130.html. The most recent versions provide for software upgrades from outside the patient.

21. 21. Medtronic also makes an implant for cerebral palsy. See S. Hart, "Brain Implant Quells Tremors," ABC News, December 23, 1997, http://nasw.org/users/hart/subhtml/abcnews.html. Also see the Medtronic Web site, http://www.medtronic.com. Medtronic also makes an implant for cerebral palsy. See S. Hart, "Brain Implant Quells Tremors," ABC News, December 23, 1997, http://nasw.org/users/hart/subhtml/abcnews.html. Also see the Medtronic Web site, http://www.medtronic.com.

22. 22. Gunther Zeck and Peter Fromherz, "Noninvasive Neuroelectronic Interfacing with Synaptically Connected Snail Neurons Immobilized on a Semiconductor Chip," Gunther Zeck and Peter Fromherz, "Noninvasive Neuroelectronic Interfacing with Synaptically Connected Snail Neurons Immobilized on a Semiconductor Chip," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98.18 (August 28, 2001): 1045762. 98.18 (August 28, 2001): 1045762.

23. 23. See R. Colin Johnson, "Scientists Activate Neurons with Quantum Dots," See R. Colin Johnson, "Scientists Activate Neurons with Quantum Dots," EE Times EE Times, December 4, 2001, http://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG20011204S0068. Quantum dots can also be used for imaging; see M. Dahan et al., "Diffusion Dynamics of Glycine Receptors Revealed by Single-Quantum Dot Tracking," Science Science 302.5644 (October 17, 2003): 44245; J. K. Jaiswal and S. M. Simon, "Potentials and Pitfalls of Fluorescent Quantum Dots for Biological Imaging," 302.5644 (October 17, 2003): 44245; J. K. Jaiswal and S. M. Simon, "Potentials and Pitfalls of Fluorescent Quantum Dots for Biological Imaging," Trends in Cell Biology Trends in Cell Biology 14.9 (September 2004): 497504. 14.9 (September 2004): 497504.

24. 24. S. Shoham et al., "Motor-Cortical Activity in Tetraplegics," S. Shoham et al., "Motor-Cortical Activity in Tetraplegics," Nature Nature 413.6858 (October 25, 2001): 793. For the University of Utah news release, see "An Early Step Toward Helping the Paralyzed Walk," October 24, 2001, http://www.utah.edu/news/releases/01/oct/spinal.html. 413.6858 (October 25, 2001): 793. For the University of Utah news release, see "An Early Step Toward Helping the Paralyzed Walk," October 24, 2001, http://www.utah.edu/news/releases/01/oct/spinal.html.

25. 25. Stephen Hawking's remarks, which were mistranslated by Stephen Hawking's remarks, which were mistranslated by Focus Focus, were quoted in Nick Paton Walsh, "Alter Our DNA or Robots Will Take Over, Warns Hawking," Observer Observer, September 2, 2001, http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,545653,00.html. The widely reported mistranslation implied that Hawking was warning against developing smarter-than-human machine intelligence. In fact, he was advocating that we hasten to close links between biological and nonbiological intelligence. Hawking provided the exact quotes to KurzweilAI.net ("Hawking Misquoted on Computers Taking Over," September 13,2001, http://www.KurzweilAI.net/news/frame.html?main=news_single.html?id%3D495).

26. 26. See note 34 in chapter 1. See note 34 in chapter 1.

27. 27. One example, Nomad for Military Applications, has been produced by Microvision, a company based in Both.e.l.l, Was.h.i.+ngton. See http://www.microvision.com/nomadmilitary/index.html. One example, Nomad for Military Applications, has been produced by Microvision, a company based in Both.e.l.l, Was.h.i.+ngton. See http://www.microvision.com/nomadmilitary/index.html.

28. 28. Olga Kharif, "Your Lapel Is Ringing," Olga Kharif, "Your Lapel Is Ringing," Business Week Business Week, June 21, 2004.

29. 29. Laila Weir, "High-Tech Hearing Bypa.s.ses Ears," Laila Weir, "High-Tech Hearing Bypa.s.ses Ears," Wired News Wired News, September 16, 2004, http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,64963,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_4.

30. 30. Hypersonic Sound technology, http://www.atcsd.com/tl_hss.html; Audio Spotlight, http://www.holosonics.com/technology.html. Hypersonic Sound technology, http://www.atcsd.com/tl_hss.html; Audio Spotlight, http://www.holosonics.com/technology.html.

31. 31. Phillip F. Schewe and Ben Stein, Phillip F. Schewe and Ben Stein, American Inst.i.tute of Physics Bulletin of Physics News American Inst.i.tute of Physics Bulletin of Physics News 236 (August 7, 1995), http://www.aip.org/enews/physnews/1995/physnews.236.htm. See also R. Weis and P. Fromherz, "Frequency Dependent Signal-Transfer in Neuron-Transistors," 236 (August 7, 1995), http://www.aip.org/enews/physnews/1995/physnews.236.htm. See also R. Weis and P. Fromherz, "Frequency Dependent Signal-Transfer in Neuron-Transistors," Physical Review E Physical Review E 55 (1997): 87789. 55 (1997): 87789.

32. 32. See note 18 above. Also see J. O. Winter et al., "Recognition Molecule Directed Interfacing Between Semiconductor Quantum Dots and Nerve Cells," See note 18 above. Also see J. O. Winter et al., "Recognition Molecule Directed Interfacing Between Semiconductor Quantum Dots and Nerve Cells," Advanced Materials Advanced Materials 13 (November 2001): 167377; I. Willner and B. Willner, "Biomaterials Integrated with Electronic Elements: En Route to Bioelectronics," 13 (November 2001): 167377; I. Willner and B. Willner, "Biomaterials Integrated with Electronic Elements: En Route to Bioelectronics," Trends in Biotechnology Trends in Biotechnology 19 (June 2001): 22230; Deborah A. Fitzgerald, "Bridging the Gap with Bioelectronics," 19 (June 2001): 22230; Deborah A. Fitzgerald, "Bridging the Gap with Bioelectronics," Scientist Scientist 16.6 (March 18, 2002): 38. 16.6 (March 18, 2002): 38.

33. 33. Robert Freitas provides an a.n.a.lysis of this scenario: Robert A. Freitas Jr., Robert Freitas provides an a.n.a.lysis of this scenario: Robert A. Freitas Jr., Nanomedicine Nanomedicine, vol. 1, Basic Capabilities Basic Capabilities, section 7.4.5.4, "Cell Message Modification" (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 1999), pp. 194-96, http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/7.4.5.4.htm#p5, and section 7.4.5.6, "Outmessaging to Neurons," pp. 19697, http://www.nanomedicine.comINMI/7.4.5.6.htm#p2.

34. 34. For descriptions of the Ramona project, including videos of the virtual-reality presentation at the TED conference and a behind-the-scenes "Making of Ramona" video, see "All About Ramona," http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?m=9. For descriptions of the Ramona project, including videos of the virtual-reality presentation at the TED conference and a behind-the-scenes "Making of Ramona" video, see "All About Ramona," http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?m=9.

35. 35. I. Fried et al., "Electric Current Stimulates Laughter," I. Fried et al., "Electric Current Stimulates Laughter," Nature Nature 391.6668 (February 12, 1998): 650. See Ray Kurzweil, 391.6668 (February 12, 1998): 650. See Ray Kurzweil, The Age of Spiritual Machines The Age of Spiritual Machines (New York: Viking, 1999). (New York: Viking, 1999).

36. 36. Robert A. Freitas Jr., Robert A. Freitas Jr., Nanomedicine Nanomedicine, vol. 1, Basic Capabilities Basic Capabilities, section 7.3, "Communication Networks" (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 1999), pp. 18688, http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/7.3.htm.

37. 37. Allen Kurzweil, Allen Kurzweil, The Grand Complication: A Novel The Grand Complication: A Novel (New York: Hyperion, 2002); Allen Kurzweil, (New York: Hyperion, 2002); Allen Kurzweil, A Case of Curiosities A Case of Curiosities (New York: Harvest Books, 2001). Allen Kurzweil is my first cousin. (New York: Harvest Books, 2001). Allen Kurzweil is my first cousin.

38. 38. As quoted in Aubrey de Grey, "Engineering Negligible Senescence: Rational Design of Feasible, Comprehensive Rejuvenation Biotechnology," Kronos Inst.i.tute Seminar Series, February 8, 2002. PowerPoint presentation available at http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/sens/sensov.ppt. As quoted in Aubrey de Grey, "Engineering Negligible Senescence: Rational Design of Feasible, Comprehensive Rejuvenation Biotechnology," Kronos Inst.i.tute Seminar Series, February 8, 2002. PowerPoint presentation available at http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/sens/sensov.ppt.

39. 39. Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Death Is an Outrage!" presentation at the fifth Alcor Conference on Extreme Life Extension, Newport Beach, Calif., November 16, 2002, http://www.rfreitas.com/Nano/DeathIsAnOutrage.htm, published on KurzweilAI.net January 9, 2003: http://www.KurzweilAI.net/articles/art0536.html. Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Death Is an Outrage!" presentation at the fifth Alcor Conference on Extreme Life Extension, Newport Beach, Calif., November 16, 2002, http://www.rfreitas.com/Nano/DeathIsAnOutrage.htm, published on KurzweilAI.net January 9, 2003: http://www.KurzweilAI.net/articles/art0536.html.

40. 40. Cro-magnon, "30 years or less, often much less ...": http://anthro.palomar.edu/h.o.m.o2/sapiens_culture.htm. Cro-magnon, "30 years or less, often much less ...": http://anthro.palomar.edu/h.o.m.o2/sapiens_culture.htm.

Egypt: Jac J. Janssen quoted in Brett Palmer, "Playing the Numbers Game," in Skeptical Review Skeptical Review, published online May 5, 2004, at http://www.theskepticalreview.com/palmer/numbers.html.Europe 1400: Gregory Clark, The Conquest of Nature: A Brief Economic History of the World The Conquest of Nature: A Brief Economic History of the World (Princeton University Press, forthcoming, 2005), chapter 5, "Mortality in the Malthusian Era," http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/gclark/GlobalHistory/Global%20History-5.pdf. (Princeton University Press, forthcoming, 2005), chapter 5, "Mortality in the Malthusian Era," http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/gclark/GlobalHistory/Global%20History-5.pdf.1800: James Riley, Rising Life Expectancy: A Global History Rising Life Expectancy: A Global History (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 3233. (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 3233.1900: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/datalhus/tables/2003/03hus027.pdf.

41. 41. The museum was originally located in Boston and is now in Mountain View, Calif. (http://www.computerhistory.org). The museum was originally located in Boston and is now in Mountain View, Calif. (http://www.computerhistory.org).

42. 42. Lyman and Kahle on long-term storage: "While good paper lasts 500 years, computer tapes last 10. While there are active organizations to make copies, we will keep our information safe, we do not have an effective mechanism to make 500 year copies of digital materials...." Peter Lyman and Brewster Kahle, "Archiving Digital Cultural Artifacts: Organizing an Agenda for Action," Lyman and Kahle on long-term storage: "While good paper lasts 500 years, computer tapes last 10. While there are active organizations to make copies, we will keep our information safe, we do not have an effective mechanism to make 500 year copies of digital materials...." Peter Lyman and Brewster Kahle, "Archiving Digital Cultural Artifacts: Organizing an Agenda for Action," D-Lib Magazine D-Lib Magazine, JulyAugust 1998. Stewart Brand writes: "Behind every hot new working computer is a trail of bodies of extinct computers, extinct storage media, extinct applications, extinct files. Science fiction writer Bruce Sterling refers to our time as 'the Golden Age of dead media, most of them with the working lifespan of a pack of Twinkles," Stewart Brand, "Written on the Wind," Civilization Magazine Civilization Magazine, November 1998 ("01998" in Long Now terminology), available online at http://www.longnow.org/10klibrary/library.htm.

43. 43. DARPA's Information Processing Technology Office's project in this vein is called LifeLog, http://www.darpa.mil/ipto/Programs/lifelog; see also Noah Shachtman, "A Spy Machine of DARPA's Dreams," DARPA's Information Processing Technology Office's project in this vein is called LifeLog, http://www.darpa.mil/ipto/Programs/lifelog; see also Noah Shachtman, "A Spy Machine of DARPA's Dreams," Wired News Wired News, May 20, 2003, http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,58909,00.html; Gordon Bell's project (for Microsoft) is MyLifeBits, http://research.microsoft.com/research/barc/MediaPresence/MyLifeBits.aspx; for the Long Now Foundation, see http://longnow.org.

44. 44. Bergeron is a.s.sistant professor of anesthesiology at Harvard Medical School and the author of such books as Bergeron is a.s.sistant professor of anesthesiology at Harvard Medical School and the author of such books as Bioinformatics Computing Bioinformatics Computing, Biotech Industry: A Global, Economic, and Financing Overview Biotech Industry: A Global, Economic, and Financing Overview, and The Wireless Web and Healthcare The Wireless Web and Healthcare.

45. 45. The Long Now Foundation is developing one possible solution: the Rosetta Disk, which will contain extensive archives of text in languages that may be lost in the far future. They plan to use a unique storage technology based on a two-inch nickel disk that can store up to 350,000 pages per disk, with an estimated life expectancy of 2,000 to 10,000 years. See the Long Now Foundation, Library Ideas, http://longnow.org/10klibrary/10kLibConference.htm. The Long Now Foundation is developing one possible solution: the Rosetta Disk, which will contain extensive archives of text in languages that may be lost in the far future. They plan to use a unique storage technology based on a two-inch nickel disk that can store up to 350,000 pages per disk, with an estimated life expectancy of 2,000 to 10,000 years. See the Long Now Foundation, Library Ideas, http://longnow.org/10klibrary/10kLibConference.htm.

46. 46. John A. Parmentola, "Paradigm s.h.i.+fting Capabilities for Army Transformation," invited paper presented at the SPIE European Symposium on Optics/Photonics in Security and Defence, October 2528, 2004; available electronically at Bridge 34.3 (Fall 2004), http://www.nae.edu/NAE/bridgecom.nsf/weblinks/MKEZ-65RLTA?OpenDoc.u.ment. John A. Parmentola, "Paradigm s.h.i.+fting Capabilities for Army Transformation," invited paper presented at the SPIE European Symposium on Optics/Photonics in Security and Defence, October 2528, 2004; available electronically at Bridge 34.3 (Fall 2004), http://www.nae.edu/NAE/bridgecom.nsf/weblinks/MKEZ-65RLTA?OpenDoc.u.ment.

47. 47. Fred Bayles, "High-tech Project Aims to Make Super-soldiers," Fred Bayles, "High-tech Project Aims to Make Super-soldiers," USA Today USA Today, May 23, 2003, http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-05-22-nanotech-usat_x.htm; see the Inst.i.tute for Soldier Nanotechnologies Web site, http://web.mit.edu/isn; Sarah Putnam, "Researchers Tout Opportunities in Nanotech," MIT News Office, October 9, 2002, http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/cdc-nanotech -1009.html.

48. 48. Ron Schafer, "Robotics to Play Major Role in Future Warfighting," http://www.jfcom.mil/newslink/storyarchive/2003/pa072903.htm; Dr. Russell Richards, "Unmanned Systems: A Big Player for Future Forces?" Unmanned Effects Workshop at the Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, July 29August 1,2003. Ron Schafer, "Robotics to Play Major Role in Future Warfighting," http://www.jfcom.mil/newslink/storyarchive/2003/pa072903.htm; Dr. Russell Richards, "Unmanned Systems: A Big Player for Future Forces?" Unmanned Effects Workshop at the Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, July 29August 1,2003.

49. 49. John Rhea, "NASA Robot in Form of Snake Planned to Penetrate Inaccessible Areas," John Rhea, "NASA Robot in Form of Snake Planned to Penetrate Inaccessible Areas," Military and Aeros.p.a.ce Electronics Military and Aeros.p.a.ce Electronics, November 2000, http://mae.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=Archives&Subsection=Display&ARTICLE_ID=86890.

50. 50. Lakshmi Sandhana, "The Drone Armies Are Coming," Lakshmi Sandhana, "The Drone Armies Are Coming," Wired News Wired News, August 30, 2002, http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,54728,00.html. See also Mario Gerla, Kaixin Xu, and Allen Moshfegh, "Minuteman: Forward Projection of Unmanned Agents Using the Airborne Internet," IEEE Aeros.p.a.ce Conference 2002, Big Sky, Mont., March 2002: http://www.cs.ucla.edu/NRL/wireless/uploads/mgerla_aeros.p.a.ce02.pdf.

51. 51. James Kennedy and Russell C. Eberhart, with Yuhui s.h.i.+, James Kennedy and Russell C. Eberhart, with Yuhui s.h.i.+, Swarm Intelligence Swarm Intelligence (San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann, 2001), http://www.swarmintelligence.org/SIBook/SI.php. (San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann, 2001), http://www.swarmintelligence.org/SIBook/SI.php.

52. 52. Will Knight, "Military Robots to Get Swarm Intelligence," April 25, 2003, http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993661. Will Knight, "Military Robots to Get Swarm Intelligence," April 25, 2003, http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993661.

53. 53. Ibid. Ibid.

54. 54. S. R. White et al., "Autonomic Healing of Polymer Composites," S. R. White et al., "Autonomic Healing of Polymer Composites," Nature Nature 409 (February 15, 2001): 79497, http://www.autonomic.uiuc.edu/files/NaturePaper.pdf; Kristin Leutwyler, "Self-Healing Plastics," ScientificAmerican.com, February 15, 2001, http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000B307F-C71A-1C5AB882809EC588ED9F. 409 (February 15, 2001): 79497, http://www.autonomic.uiuc.edu/files/NaturePaper.pdf; Kristin Leutwyler, "Self-Healing Plastics," ScientificAmerican.com, February 15, 2001, http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000B307F-C71A-1C5AB882809EC588ED9F.

55. 55. Sue Baker, "Predator Missile Launch Test Totally Successful," Sue Baker, "Predator Missile Launch Test Totally Successful," Strategic Affairs Strategic Affairs, April 1, 2001, http://www.stratmag.com/issueApr-l/page02.htm.

56. 56. See the OpenCourseWare course list at http://ocw.mit.edu/index.html. See the OpenCourseWare course list at http://ocw.mit.edu/index.html.

57. 57. Brigitte Bouissou quoted on MIT OpenCourseWare's additional quotes page at http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Global/AboutOCW/additionalquotes.htm and Eric Bender, "Teach Locally, Educate Globally," Brigitte Bouissou quoted on MIT OpenCourseWare's additional quotes page at http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Global/AboutOCW/additionalquotes.htm and Eric Bender, "Teach Locally, Educate Globally," MIT Technology Review MIT Technology Review, June 2004, http://www.techreview.com/articles/04/06/bender0604.asp?p=1.

58. 58. Kurzweil Educational Systems (http://www.Kurzweiledu.com) provides the Kurzweil3000 reading system for people with dyslexia. It can read any book to the user while highlighting what is being read on a high-resolution image of the page. It incorporates a range of features to improve the reading skills of users. Kurzweil Educational Systems (http://www.Kurzweiledu.com) provides the Kurzweil3000 reading system for people with dyslexia. It can read any book to the user while highlighting what is being read on a high-resolution image of the page. It incorporates a range of features to improve the reading skills of users.