On Food And Cooking Part 4

Whipped Cream The miraculous thing about whipped cream is that simple physical agitation can transform a luscious but unmanageable liquid into an equally luscious but shapeable "solid." Like foamed milk, whipped cream is an intimate intermingling of liquid and air, with the air divided into tiny bubbles and the cream spread out and immobilized in the microscopically thin bubble walls. Common as it is today, this luxurious, velvety foam was very laborious to make until 1900. Before then, cooks whipped naturally separated cream for an hour or more, periodically skimming off the foam and setting it aside to drain. The key to a stable foam of the whole ma.s.s of cream is enough fat globules to hold all the fluid and air together, and naturally separated cream seldom reaches that fat concentration, which is about 30%. It took the invention of the centrifugal separator to produce easily whipped cream. The miraculous thing about whipped cream is that simple physical agitation can transform a luscious but unmanageable liquid into an equally luscious but shapeable "solid." Like foamed milk, whipped cream is an intimate intermingling of liquid and air, with the air divided into tiny bubbles and the cream spread out and immobilized in the microscopically thin bubble walls. Common as it is today, this luxurious, velvety foam was very laborious to make until 1900. Before then, cooks whipped naturally separated cream for an hour or more, periodically skimming off the foam and setting it aside to drain. The key to a stable foam of the whole ma.s.s of cream is enough fat globules to hold all the fluid and air together, and naturally separated cream seldom reaches that fat concentration, which is about 30%. It took the invention of the centrifugal separator to produce easily whipped cream.

Food Words: Cream, Creme, Panna Cream, Creme, PannaThe English name for the fat-rich portion of milk, like the French word from which it derives, has a.s.sociations that are startling but appropriate to its status as a textural ideal.Before the Norman Conquest, and to this day in some northern dialects, the English word for cream was ream, ream, a simple offshoot of the Indo-European root that also gave the modern German a simple offshoot of the Indo-European root that also gave the modern German Rahm. Rahm. But the French connection introduced a remarkable hybrid term. In 6th century Gaul, fatty milk was called But the French connection introduced a remarkable hybrid term. In 6th century Gaul, fatty milk was called crama, crama, from the Latin from the Latin cremor lactis, cremor lactis, or "heat-thickened substance of milk." Then in the next few centuries it somehow became crossed with a religious term: or "heat-thickened substance of milk." Then in the next few centuries it somehow became crossed with a religious term: chreme, chreme, or "consecrated oil," which stems from the Greek word or "consecrated oil," which stems from the Greek word chriein, chriein, "to anoint," that gave us "to anoint," that gave us Christ, Christ, "the anointed one." So in France "the anointed one." So in France crama crama became became creme, creme, and in England and in England ream ream gave way to gave way to cream. cream.Why this confusion of ancient ritual with rich food? Linguistic accident or error, perhaps. On the other hand, anointing oil and b.u.t.terfat are are essentially the same substance, so perhaps it was inspiration. In the monastic or farm kitchens of Normandy, the addition of cream to other foods may have been considered not just an enrichment, but a kind of blessing. essentially the same substance, so perhaps it was inspiration. In the monastic or farm kitchens of Normandy, the addition of cream to other foods may have been considered not just an enrichment, but a kind of blessing.The Italian word for cream, panna, panna, has been traced back to the Latin has been traced back to the Latin pannus, pannus, or "cloth." This is apparently a homely allusion to the thin covering that cream provides for the milk surface. or "cloth." This is apparently a homely allusion to the thin covering that cream provides for the milk surface.

How Fat Stabilizes Foamed Cream Unlike the protein foams of egg white, egg yolk, and milk, the cream foam is stabilized by fat. Initially, the whisk introduces short-lived air bubbles into the cream. After the first half-minute or so, the bubble walls begin to be stabilized by the Unlike the protein foams of egg white, egg yolk, and milk, the cream foam is stabilized by fat. Initially, the whisk introduces short-lived air bubbles into the cream. After the first half-minute or so, the bubble walls begin to be stabilized by the de de stabilization of the fat globules. As the globules are knocked all around and into each other by the whipping, parts of their protective membranes are stripped away by the shearing action of the whisk, and by the force imbalance in the air bubble walls. The patches of naked fat, which by their nature avoid contact with water, settle in one of two regions in the cream: either facing the air pocket in the bubble walls, or stuck to a patch of naked fat on another globule. The fat globules thus form walls around the air bubbles, and connections between neighboring walls: and so a continuous network develops. This network of solid fat spheres not only holds the air bubbles in place, but also prevents the intervening pockets of fluid from moving very far. And so the foam as a whole takes on a definite, persistent structure. stabilization of the fat globules. As the globules are knocked all around and into each other by the whipping, parts of their protective membranes are stripped away by the shearing action of the whisk, and by the force imbalance in the air bubble walls. The patches of naked fat, which by their nature avoid contact with water, settle in one of two regions in the cream: either facing the air pocket in the bubble walls, or stuck to a patch of naked fat on another globule. The fat globules thus form walls around the air bubbles, and connections between neighboring walls: and so a continuous network develops. This network of solid fat spheres not only holds the air bubbles in place, but also prevents the intervening pockets of fluid from moving very far. And so the foam as a whole takes on a definite, persistent structure.

If the beating continues past the point at which a fat network has just barely formed, the gathering of the fat globules continues also, but this process now de de stabilizes the foam. The fine globule cl.u.s.ters coalesce with each other into ever coa.r.s.er ma.s.ses of b.u.t.terfat, and the pockets of air and fluid that they hold in place coa.r.s.en as well. The foam loses volume and weeps, and the velvety texture of the perfectly whipped cream becomes granular. The b.u.t.ter grains in overwhipped cream leave a greasy residue in the mouth. stabilizes the foam. The fine globule cl.u.s.ters coalesce with each other into ever coa.r.s.er ma.s.ses of b.u.t.terfat, and the pockets of air and fluid that they hold in place coa.r.s.en as well. The foam loses volume and weeps, and the velvety texture of the perfectly whipped cream becomes granular. The b.u.t.ter grains in overwhipped cream leave a greasy residue in the mouth.

Whipped cream as seen through the scanning electron microscope. Left: Left: A view showing the large cavity-like air bubbles and smaller spherical fat globules (the black bar represents 0.03 mm). A view showing the large cavity-like air bubbles and smaller spherical fat globules (the black bar represents 0.03 mm). Right: Right: Close-up of an air bubble, showing the layer of partly coalesced fat that has stabilized the bubble (the bar represents 0.005 mm). Close-up of an air bubble, showing the layer of partly coalesced fat that has stabilized the bubble (the bar represents 0.005 mm).

The Importance of Cold Because even mild warmth softens the b.u.t.terfat skeleton of a cream foam, and liquid fat will collapse the air bubbles, it's essential to keep cream cold while it's whipped. It should start out at the low end of 4050F/510C, and bowl and beaters should be chilled as well, since both air and beating will quickly warm everything. Ideally, the cream is "aged" in the refrigerator for 12 hours or more before whipping. Prolonged chilling causes some of the b.u.t.terfat to form crystalline needles that hasten the membrane stripping and immobilize the small portion of fat that's liquid even in cold cream. Cream that has been left at room temperature and chilled just before use leaks bubble-deflating liquid fat from the beginning of whipping, never rises very high, and more easily becomes granular and watery. Because even mild warmth softens the b.u.t.terfat skeleton of a cream foam, and liquid fat will collapse the air bubbles, it's essential to keep cream cold while it's whipped. It should start out at the low end of 4050F/510C, and bowl and beaters should be chilled as well, since both air and beating will quickly warm everything. Ideally, the cream is "aged" in the refrigerator for 12 hours or more before whipping. Prolonged chilling causes some of the b.u.t.terfat to form crystalline needles that hasten the membrane stripping and immobilize the small portion of fat that's liquid even in cold cream. Cream that has been left at room temperature and chilled just before use leaks bubble-deflating liquid fat from the beginning of whipping, never rises very high, and more easily becomes granular and watery.

How Different Creams Behave When Whipped Cream for whipping must be sufficiently rich in fat to form a continuous skeleton of globules. The minimum fat concentration is 30%, the equivalent of "single" or "light whipping" cream. "Heavy" cream, at 38 to 40% fat, will whip faster than light cream, and forms a stiffer, denser, less voluminous foam. It also leaks less fluid, and so is valued for use in pastries and baked goods, and for piping into decorative shapes. For other purposes, heavy cream is usually diluted with a quarter of its volume of milk to make 30% cream and a lighter, softer foam. Cream for whipping must be sufficiently rich in fat to form a continuous skeleton of globules. The minimum fat concentration is 30%, the equivalent of "single" or "light whipping" cream. "Heavy" cream, at 38 to 40% fat, will whip faster than light cream, and forms a stiffer, denser, less voluminous foam. It also leaks less fluid, and so is valued for use in pastries and baked goods, and for piping into decorative shapes. For other purposes, heavy cream is usually diluted with a quarter of its volume of milk to make 30% cream and a lighter, softer foam.

The fat globules in h.o.m.ogenized cream are smaller and more thickly covered with milk proteins. h.o.m.ogenized cream therefore forms a finer-textured foam, and takes at least twice as long to whip (it's also harder to overwhip to the granular stage). The cook can cut the whipping time of any cream by slightly acidifying it (1 teaspoon/5 ml lemon juice per cup/250 ml), which makes the proteins in its globule membranes easier to strip away.

Methods: Hand, Machine, Pressurized Gas Cream can be foamed by several different methods. Whisking by hand takes more time and physical exertion than an electric beater, but incorporates more air and produces a greater volume. The lightest, fluffiest whipped cream is produced with the help of pressurized gas, usually nitrous oxide (N Cream can be foamed by several different methods. Whisking by hand takes more time and physical exertion than an electric beater, but incorporates more air and produces a greater volume. The lightest, fluffiest whipped cream is produced with the help of pressurized gas, usually nitrous oxide (N2O). The most familiar gas-powered device is the aerosol can, which contains a pressurized mixture of ultrapasteurized cream and dissolved gas. When the nozzle is opened and the mixture released, the gas expands instantly and explodes the cream into a very light froth. There is also a device that aerates ordinary fresh cream with a replaceable canister of nitrous oxide, which is released in the nozzle and causes great turbulence as it mixes with the cream.

Early Whipped CreamMy Lord of S. Alban's Cresme FouetteePut as much as you please to make, of sweet thick cream into a dish, and whip it with a bundle of white hard rushes, (of such as they make whisks to brush cloaks) tied together, till it come to be very thick, and near a b.u.t.tery substance. If you whip it too long, it will become b.u.t.ter. About a good hour will serve in winter. In summer it will require an hour and a half. Do not put in the dish you will serve it up in, till it be almost time to set it upon the table. Then strew some powdered fine sugar into the bottom of the dish it is to go in, and with a broad spatule lay your cream upon it: when half is laid in, strew some more fine sugar upon it, and then lay in the rest of the cream (leaving behind some whey that will be in the bottom) and strew some more sugar upon that.- Sir Kenelm Digby, The Closet Opened, The Closet Opened, 1669 1669 b.u.t.ter and Margarine These days, if a cook actually manages to make make b.u.t.ter in the kitchen, it's most likely a disaster: a cream dish has been mishandled and the fat separates from the other ingredients. That's a shame: all cooks should relax now and then and intentionally overwhip some cream! The coming of b.u.t.ter is an everyday miracle, an occasion for delighted wonder at what the Irish poet Seamus Heaney called "coagulated sunlight" "heaped up like gilded gravel in the bowl." Milkfat is indeed a portion of the sun's energy, captured by the gra.s.ses of the field and repackaged by the cow in scattered, microscopic globules. Churning milk or cream damages the globules and frees their fat to stick together in ever larger ma.s.ses, which we eventually sieve into the golden h.o.a.rd that imparts a warm, sweet richness to many foods. b.u.t.ter in the kitchen, it's most likely a disaster: a cream dish has been mishandled and the fat separates from the other ingredients. That's a shame: all cooks should relax now and then and intentionally overwhip some cream! The coming of b.u.t.ter is an everyday miracle, an occasion for delighted wonder at what the Irish poet Seamus Heaney called "coagulated sunlight" "heaped up like gilded gravel in the bowl." Milkfat is indeed a portion of the sun's energy, captured by the gra.s.ses of the field and repackaged by the cow in scattered, microscopic globules. Churning milk or cream damages the globules and frees their fat to stick together in ever larger ma.s.ses, which we eventually sieve into the golden h.o.a.rd that imparts a warm, sweet richness to many foods.

Ancient, Once Unfas.h.i.+onable All it takes to separate the fat from milk is 30 seconds of slos.h.i.+ng, so b.u.t.ter was no doubt discovered in the earliest days of dairying. It has long been important from Scandinavia to India, where nearly half of all milk production goes to making b.u.t.ter for both cooking and ceremonial purposes. Its heyday came much later in northern Europe, where throughout the Middle Ages it was eaten mainly by peasants. b.u.t.ter slowly infiltrated n.o.ble kitchens as the only animal fat allowed by Rome on days of abstention from meat. In the early 16th century it was also permitted during Lent, and the rising middle cla.s.ses adopted the rustic coupling of bread and b.u.t.ter. Soon the English were notorious for serving meats and vegetables swimming in melted b.u.t.ter, and cooks throughout Europe exploited b.u.t.ter in a host of fine foods, from sauces to pastries. All it takes to separate the fat from milk is 30 seconds of slos.h.i.+ng, so b.u.t.ter was no doubt discovered in the earliest days of dairying. It has long been important from Scandinavia to India, where nearly half of all milk production goes to making b.u.t.ter for both cooking and ceremonial purposes. Its heyday came much later in northern Europe, where throughout the Middle Ages it was eaten mainly by peasants. b.u.t.ter slowly infiltrated n.o.ble kitchens as the only animal fat allowed by Rome on days of abstention from meat. In the early 16th century it was also permitted during Lent, and the rising middle cla.s.ses adopted the rustic coupling of bread and b.u.t.ter. Soon the English were notorious for serving meats and vegetables swimming in melted b.u.t.ter, and cooks throughout Europe exploited b.u.t.ter in a host of fine foods, from sauces to pastries.

Normandy and Brittany in northwest France, Holland, and Ireland became especially renowned for the quality of their b.u.t.ter. Most of it was made on small farms using cream that was pooled from several milkings, and was therefore a day or two old and somewhat soured by lactic acid bacteria. Continental Europe still prefers the flavor of this lightly fermented "cultured" b.u.t.ter to the "sweet cream" b.u.t.ter made common in the 19th century by the use of ice, the development of refrigeration, and the mechanical cream separator.

Around 1870, a shortage of b.u.t.ter in France led to the invention of an imitation, margarine, margarine, which could be made from a variety of cheap animal fats and vegetable oils. More margarine than b.u.t.ter is now consumed in the United States and parts of Europe. which could be made from a variety of cheap animal fats and vegetable oils. More margarine than b.u.t.ter is now consumed in the United States and parts of Europe.

Making b.u.t.ter b.u.t.ter making is in essence a simple but laborious operation: you agitate a container of cream until the fat globules are damaged and their fat leaks out and comes together into ma.s.ses large enough to gather. b.u.t.ter making is in essence a simple but laborious operation: you agitate a container of cream until the fat globules are damaged and their fat leaks out and comes together into ma.s.ses large enough to gather.

Preparing the Cream For b.u.t.ter making, cream is concentrated to 3644% fat. The cream is then pasteurized, in the United States usually at 185F/85C, a high temperature that develops a distinct cooked, custardy aroma. After cooling, the cream for cultured b.u.t.ter may be inoculated with lactic acid bacteria (see p. 35). The sweet or cultured cream is then cooled to about 40F/5C and "aged" at that temperature for at least eight hours so that about half of the milk fat in the globules forms solid crystals. The number and size of these crystals help determine the how quickly and completely the milk fat separates, as well as the final texture of the b.u.t.ter. The properly aged cream is then warmed a few degrees Fahrenheit and churned. For b.u.t.ter making, cream is concentrated to 3644% fat. The cream is then pasteurized, in the United States usually at 185F/85C, a high temperature that develops a distinct cooked, custardy aroma. After cooling, the cream for cultured b.u.t.ter may be inoculated with lactic acid bacteria (see p. 35). The sweet or cultured cream is then cooled to about 40F/5C and "aged" at that temperature for at least eight hours so that about half of the milk fat in the globules forms solid crystals. The number and size of these crystals help determine the how quickly and completely the milk fat separates, as well as the final texture of the b.u.t.ter. The properly aged cream is then warmed a few degrees Fahrenheit and churned.

Churning Churning is accomplished by a variety of mechanical devices that may take 15 minutes or a few seconds to damage the fat globules and form the initial grains of b.u.t.ter. The fat crystals formed during aging distort and weaken the globule membranes so that they rupture easily. When damaged globules collide with each other, the liquid portion of their fat flows together to make a continuous ma.s.s, and these grow as churning continues. Churning is accomplished by a variety of mechanical devices that may take 15 minutes or a few seconds to damage the fat globules and form the initial grains of b.u.t.ter. The fat crystals formed during aging distort and weaken the globule membranes so that they rupture easily. When damaged globules collide with each other, the liquid portion of their fat flows together to make a continuous ma.s.s, and these grow as churning continues.

Working Once churning generates the desired size of b.u.t.ter grains, often the size of a wheat seed, the water phase of the cream is drained off. This is the original b.u.t.termilk, rich in free globule membrane material and with about 0.5% fat (p. 50). The solid b.u.t.ter grains may be washed with cold water to remove the b.u.t.termilk on their surfaces. The grains are then "worked," or kneaded together to consolidate the semisolid fat phase and to break up the embedded pockets of b.u.t.termilk (or water) into droplets around 10 micrometers in diameter, or about the size of a large fat globule. Cows that get little fresh pasturage and its orange carotene pigments produce pale milk fat; the b.u.t.ter maker can compensate for this by adding a dye such as annatto (p. 423) or pure carotene during the working. If the b.u.t.ter is to be salted, either fine granular salt or a strong brine goes in at this stage as well. The b.u.t.ter is then stored, blended, or immediately shaped and packaged. Once churning generates the desired size of b.u.t.ter grains, often the size of a wheat seed, the water phase of the cream is drained off. This is the original b.u.t.termilk, rich in free globule membrane material and with about 0.5% fat (p. 50). The solid b.u.t.ter grains may be washed with cold water to remove the b.u.t.termilk on their surfaces. The grains are then "worked," or kneaded together to consolidate the semisolid fat phase and to break up the embedded pockets of b.u.t.termilk (or water) into droplets around 10 micrometers in diameter, or about the size of a large fat globule. Cows that get little fresh pasturage and its orange carotene pigments produce pale milk fat; the b.u.t.ter maker can compensate for this by adding a dye such as annatto (p. 423) or pure carotene during the working. If the b.u.t.ter is to be salted, either fine granular salt or a strong brine goes in at this stage as well. The b.u.t.ter is then stored, blended, or immediately shaped and packaged.

Kinds of b.u.t.ter b.u.t.ter is made in several distinct styles, each with its own particular qualities. It's necessary to read labels carefully to learn whether a given brand has been made with plain cream, fermented cream, or cream flavored to taste like fermented cream. b.u.t.ter is made in several distinct styles, each with its own particular qualities. It's necessary to read labels carefully to learn whether a given brand has been made with plain cream, fermented cream, or cream flavored to taste like fermented cream.

Raw cream b.u.t.ter, whether sweet or cultured, is now nearly extinct in the United States and a rarity even in Europe. It is prized for its pure cream flavor, without the cooked-milk note due to pasteurization. The flavor is fragile; it deteriorates after about 10 days unless the b.u.t.ter is frozen. whether sweet or cultured, is now nearly extinct in the United States and a rarity even in Europe. It is prized for its pure cream flavor, without the cooked-milk note due to pasteurization. The flavor is fragile; it deteriorates after about 10 days unless the b.u.t.ter is frozen.

Sweet cream b.u.t.ter is the most basic, and the commonest in Britain and North America. It's made from pasteurized fresh cream, and in the United States must be at least 80% fat and no more than 16% water; the remaining 4% is protein, lactose, and salts contained in the b.u.t.termilk droplets. is the most basic, and the commonest in Britain and North America. It's made from pasteurized fresh cream, and in the United States must be at least 80% fat and no more than 16% water; the remaining 4% is protein, lactose, and salts contained in the b.u.t.termilk droplets.

Salted sweet cream b.u.t.ter contains between 1 and 2% added salt (the equivalent of 12 teaspoons per pound/510 gm per 500 gm). Originally salt was added as a preservative, and at 2%, the equivalent of about 12% in the water droplets, it still is an effective antimicrobial agent. sweet cream b.u.t.ter contains between 1 and 2% added salt (the equivalent of 12 teaspoons per pound/510 gm per 500 gm). Originally salt was added as a preservative, and at 2%, the equivalent of about 12% in the water droplets, it still is an effective antimicrobial agent.

The structure of b.u.t.ter, which is about 80% milk fat and 15% water. The fat globules, solid crystals, and water droplets are embedded in a continuous ma.s.s of semisolid "free" fat that coats them all. A high proportion of ordered crystals imparts a stiff firmness to cold b.u.t.ter, while free fat lends spreadability and the tendency to leak liquid fat as it warms and softens.

Cultured cream b.u.t.ter, the standard in Europe, is the modern, controlled version of the commonest preindustrial b.u.t.ter, whose raw cream had been slightly soured by the action of lactic acid bacteria while it slowly separated in the pan before churning. Cultured b.u.t.ter tastes different: the bacteria produce both acids and aroma compounds, so the b.u.t.ter is noticeably fuller in flavor. One particular aroma compound, diacetyl, greatly intensifies the basic b.u.t.ter flavor itself. the standard in Europe, is the modern, controlled version of the commonest preindustrial b.u.t.ter, whose raw cream had been slightly soured by the action of lactic acid bacteria while it slowly separated in the pan before churning. Cultured b.u.t.ter tastes different: the bacteria produce both acids and aroma compounds, so the b.u.t.ter is noticeably fuller in flavor. One particular aroma compound, diacetyl, greatly intensifies the basic b.u.t.ter flavor itself.

There are several different methods for manufacturing cultured b.u.t.ter or something like it. The most straightforward is to ferment pasteurized cream with cream-culture bacteria (p. 49) for 12 to 18 hours at cool room temperature before churning. In the more efficient method developed in the Netherlands in the 1970s and also used in France, sweet cream is churned into b.u.t.ter, and then the bacterial cultures and preformed lactic acid are added; flavor develops during cold storage. Finally, the manufacturer can simply add pure lactic acid and flavor compounds to sweet cream b.u.t.ter. This is an artificially flavored b.u.t.ter, not a cultured b.u.t.ter.

European-style b.u.t.ter, an American emulation of French b.u.t.ter, is a cultured b.u.t.ter with a fat content higher than the standard 80%. France specifies a minimum fat content of 82% for its b.u.t.ter, and some American producers aim for 85%. These b.u.t.ters contain 1020% less water, which can be an advantage when making flaky pastries (p. 563). an American emulation of French b.u.t.ter, is a cultured b.u.t.ter with a fat content higher than the standard 80%. France specifies a minimum fat content of 82% for its b.u.t.ter, and some American producers aim for 85%. These b.u.t.ters contain 1020% less water, which can be an advantage when making flaky pastries (p. 563).

Whipped b.u.t.ter is a modern form meant to be more spreadable. Ordinary sweet b.u.t.ter is softened and then injected with about a third its volume of nitrogen gas (air would encourage oxidation and rancidity). Both the physical stress and the gas pockets weaken the b.u.t.ter structure and make it easier to spread, though it remains brittle at refrigerator temperature. is a modern form meant to be more spreadable. Ordinary sweet b.u.t.ter is softened and then injected with about a third its volume of nitrogen gas (air would encourage oxidation and rancidity). Both the physical stress and the gas pockets weaken the b.u.t.ter structure and make it easier to spread, though it remains brittle at refrigerator temperature.

Specialty b.u.t.ters are made in France for professional bakers and pastry chefs. are made in France for professional bakers and pastry chefs. Beurre cuisinier, beurre patissier, Beurre cuisinier, beurre patissier, and and beurre concentre beurre concentre are almost pure b.u.t.terfat, and are made from ordinary b.u.t.ter by gently melting it and centrifuging the fat off of the water and milk solids. It can then be recooled as is, or slowly crystallized and separated into fractions that melt at temperatures from 80F/27C to 104F/40C, depending on the chef's needs. are almost pure b.u.t.terfat, and are made from ordinary b.u.t.ter by gently melting it and centrifuging the fat off of the water and milk solids. It can then be recooled as is, or slowly crystallized and separated into fractions that melt at temperatures from 80F/27C to 104F/40C, depending on the chef's needs.

b.u.t.ter Consistency and Structure Well made b.u.t.ters can have noticeably different consistencies. In France, for example, b.u.t.ter from Normandy is relatively soft and favored for spreading and making sauces - Elizabeth David said, "When you get melted b.u.t.ter with a trout in Normandy it is difficult to believe that it is not cream" - while b.u.t.ter from the Charentes is firmer, and preferred for making pastries. Many dairies will often produce softer b.u.t.ter in the summer than they do in the winter. The consistency of b.u.t.ter reflects its microscopic structure, and this is strongly influenced by two factors: what the cows eat, and how the b.u.t.ter maker handles their milk. Feeds rich in polyunsaturated fats, especially fresh pasturage, produce softer b.u.t.ters; hay and grain harder ones. The b.u.t.ter maker also influences consistency by the rate and degree of cooling to which he subjects the cream during the aging period, and by how extensively he works the new b.u.t.ter. These conditions control the relative proportions of firming crystalline fat and softening globular and free fat. Well made b.u.t.ters can have noticeably different consistencies. In France, for example, b.u.t.ter from Normandy is relatively soft and favored for spreading and making sauces - Elizabeth David said, "When you get melted b.u.t.ter with a trout in Normandy it is difficult to believe that it is not cream" - while b.u.t.ter from the Charentes is firmer, and preferred for making pastries. Many dairies will often produce softer b.u.t.ter in the summer than they do in the winter. The consistency of b.u.t.ter reflects its microscopic structure, and this is strongly influenced by two factors: what the cows eat, and how the b.u.t.ter maker handles their milk. Feeds rich in polyunsaturated fats, especially fresh pasturage, produce softer b.u.t.ters; hay and grain harder ones. The b.u.t.ter maker also influences consistency by the rate and degree of cooling to which he subjects the cream during the aging period, and by how extensively he works the new b.u.t.ter. These conditions control the relative proportions of firming crystalline fat and softening globular and free fat.

Keeping b.u.t.ter Because its scant water is dispersed in tiny droplets, properly made b.u.t.ter resists gross contamination by microbes, and keeps well for some days at room temperature. However, its delicate flavor is easily coa.r.s.ened by simple exposure to the air and to bright light, which break fat molecules into smaller fragments that smell stale and rancid. b.u.t.ter also readily absorbs strong odors from its surroundings. Keep reserves in the freezer, and daily b.u.t.ter in the cold and dark as much as possible. Rewrap remainders airtight, preferably with the original foiled paper and not with aluminum foil; direct contact with metal can hasten fat oxidation, particularly in salted b.u.t.ter. Translucent, dark yellow patches on the surface of a b.u.t.ter stick are areas where the b.u.t.ter has been exposed to the air and dried out; they taste rancid and should be sc.r.a.ped off. Because its scant water is dispersed in tiny droplets, properly made b.u.t.ter resists gross contamination by microbes, and keeps well for some days at room temperature. However, its delicate flavor is easily coa.r.s.ened by simple exposure to the air and to bright light, which break fat molecules into smaller fragments that smell stale and rancid. b.u.t.ter also readily absorbs strong odors from its surroundings. Keep reserves in the freezer, and daily b.u.t.ter in the cold and dark as much as possible. Rewrap remainders airtight, preferably with the original foiled paper and not with aluminum foil; direct contact with metal can hasten fat oxidation, particularly in salted b.u.t.ter. Translucent, dark yellow patches on the surface of a b.u.t.ter stick are areas where the b.u.t.ter has been exposed to the air and dried out; they taste rancid and should be sc.r.a.ped off.

Cooking with b.u.t.ter Cooks use b.u.t.ter for many different purposes, from greasing cake pans and souffle molds to flavoring b.u.t.terscotch candies. Here are notes on some of its more prominent roles. The important role of b.u.t.ter in baking is covered in chapter 10. Cooks use b.u.t.ter for many different purposes, from greasing cake pans and souffle molds to flavoring b.u.t.terscotch candies. Here are notes on some of its more prominent roles. The important role of b.u.t.ter in baking is covered in chapter 10.

b.u.t.ter as Garnish: Spreads, Whipped b.u.t.ters Good plain bread spread with good plain b.u.t.ter is one of the simplest pleasures. We owe b.u.t.ter's b.u.t.tery consistency to the peculiar melting behavior of milk fat, which softens and becomes spreadable around 60F/15C, but doesn't begin to melt until 85F/30C. Good plain bread spread with good plain b.u.t.ter is one of the simplest pleasures. We owe b.u.t.ter's b.u.t.tery consistency to the peculiar melting behavior of milk fat, which softens and becomes spreadable around 60F/15C, but doesn't begin to melt until 85F/30C.

This workable consistency also means that it's easy to incorporate other ingredients into the b.u.t.ter, which then carries their flavor and color and helps apply them evenly to other foods. Composed b.u.t.ters are ma.s.ses of room-temperature b.u.t.ter into which some flavoring and/or coloring has been kneaded; these can include herbs, spices, stock, a wine reduction, cheese, and pounded seafood. The mixture can then be spread on another food, or refrigerated, sliced, and melted into a b.u.t.ter sauce when put onto a hot meat or vegetable. And whipped b.u.t.ter prepared by the cook is b.u.t.ter lightened by the incorporation of some air, and flavored with about half its volume of stock, a puree, or some other liquid, which becomes dispersed into the b.u.t.ter fat in small droplets.

b.u.t.ter as Sauce: Melted b.u.t.ter, Beurre Noisette, Beurre Noisette, and and Beurre Noir Beurre Noir Perhaps the simplest of sauces is the pat of b.u.t.ter dropped on a heap of hot vegetables, or stirred into rice or noodles, or drawn across the surface of an omelet or steak to give a sheen. Melted b.u.t.ter can be enlivened with lemon juice, or "clarified" to remove the milk solids (see below). Perhaps the simplest of sauces is the pat of b.u.t.ter dropped on a heap of hot vegetables, or stirred into rice or noodles, or drawn across the surface of an omelet or steak to give a sheen. Melted b.u.t.ter can be enlivened with lemon juice, or "clarified" to remove the milk solids (see below). Beurre noisette Beurre noisette and and beurre noir, beurre noir, "hazel" and "black" b.u.t.ter, are melted b.u.t.ter sauces that the French have used since medieval times to enrich fish, brains, and vegetables. Their flavor is deepened by heating the b.u.t.ter to about 250F/120C until its water boils off and the molecules in the white residue, milk sugar and protein, react with each other to form brown pigments and new aromas (the browning reaction, p. 777). Hazel b.u.t.ter is cooked until it's golden brown, black b.u.t.ter until it's dark brown (truly black b.u.t.ter is acrid). They're often balanced with vinegar or lemon juice, which should be added only after the b.u.t.ter has cooled below the boiling point; otherwise the cold liquid will cause spattering and the lemon solids may brown. On their own, they lend a rich nutty flavor to baked goods. "hazel" and "black" b.u.t.ter, are melted b.u.t.ter sauces that the French have used since medieval times to enrich fish, brains, and vegetables. Their flavor is deepened by heating the b.u.t.ter to about 250F/120C until its water boils off and the molecules in the white residue, milk sugar and protein, react with each other to form brown pigments and new aromas (the browning reaction, p. 777). Hazel b.u.t.ter is cooked until it's golden brown, black b.u.t.ter until it's dark brown (truly black b.u.t.ter is acrid). They're often balanced with vinegar or lemon juice, which should be added only after the b.u.t.ter has cooled below the boiling point; otherwise the cold liquid will cause spattering and the lemon solids may brown. On their own, they lend a rich nutty flavor to baked goods.

The emulsified b.u.t.ter sauces - beurre blanc, beurre blanc, hollandaise, and their relatives - are described in chapter 11. hollandaise, and their relatives - are described in chapter 11.

Clarified b.u.t.ter Clarified Clarified b.u.t.ter is b.u.t.ter whose water and milk solids have been removed, leaving essentially pure milk fat that looks beautifully clear when melted and that is better suited for frying (the milk solids scorch at relatively low frying temperatures). When b.u.t.ter is gently heated to the boiling point of water, the water bubbles to the top, where the whey proteins form a froth. Eventually all the water evaporates, the bubbling stops, and the froth dehydrates. This leaves a skin of dry whey protein on top, and dry casein particles at the bottom. Lift off the whey skin, pour the liquid fat off of the casein residue, and the purification is complete. b.u.t.ter is b.u.t.ter whose water and milk solids have been removed, leaving essentially pure milk fat that looks beautifully clear when melted and that is better suited for frying (the milk solids scorch at relatively low frying temperatures). When b.u.t.ter is gently heated to the boiling point of water, the water bubbles to the top, where the whey proteins form a froth. Eventually all the water evaporates, the bubbling stops, and the froth dehydrates. This leaves a skin of dry whey protein on top, and dry casein particles at the bottom. Lift off the whey skin, pour the liquid fat off of the casein residue, and the purification is complete.

Frying with b.u.t.ter b.u.t.ter is sometimes used for frying and sauteing. It has the advantage that its largely saturated fats are resistant to being broken down by heat, and so don't become gummy the way unsaturated oils do. It has the disadvantage that its milk solids brown and then burn around 250F, 150 below the smoke point of many vegetable oils. Adding oil to b.u.t.ter does not improve its heat tolerance. Clarifying does; b.u.t.ter free of milk solids can be heated to 400F/200C before burning. b.u.t.ter is sometimes used for frying and sauteing. It has the advantage that its largely saturated fats are resistant to being broken down by heat, and so don't become gummy the way unsaturated oils do. It has the disadvantage that its milk solids brown and then burn around 250F, 150 below the smoke point of many vegetable oils. Adding oil to b.u.t.ter does not improve its heat tolerance. Clarifying does; b.u.t.ter free of milk solids can be heated to 400F/200C before burning.

Margarine and Other Dairy Spreads Margarine has been called "a creation of political intuition and scientific research." It was invented by a French chemist in 1869, three years after Napoleon III had offered funds for the development of an inexpensive food fat to supplement the inadequate b.u.t.ter supply for his poorly nourished but growing urban populace. Others before Hippolyte Mege-Mouries had modified solid animal fats, but he had the novel idea of flavoring beef tallow with milk and working the mixture like b.u.t.ter. Margarine has been called "a creation of political intuition and scientific research." It was invented by a French chemist in 1869, three years after Napoleon III had offered funds for the development of an inexpensive food fat to supplement the inadequate b.u.t.ter supply for his poorly nourished but growing urban populace. Others before Hippolyte Mege-Mouries had modified solid animal fats, but he had the novel idea of flavoring beef tallow with milk and working the mixture like b.u.t.ter.

Margarine caught on quickly in the major European b.u.t.ter producers and exporters - Holland, Denmark, and Germany - in part because they had surplus skim milk from b.u.t.ter making that could be used to flavor margarine. In the United States large-scale production was underway by 1880. Here, the dairy industry and its allies in government put up fierce resistance in the form of discriminatory taxes that persisted into the 1970s. Today, basic margarine remains cheap compared to b.u.t.ter, and Americans consume more than twice as much margarine as b.u.t.ter. Scandinavia and northern Europe also favor margarine, while France and Britain still give a substantial edge to b.u.t.ter.

The Rise of Vegetable Margarine Modern margarine is now made not from solid animal fats, but from normally liquid vegetable oils. This s.h.i.+ft was made possible around 1900 by German and French chemists who developed the process of Modern margarine is now made not from solid animal fats, but from normally liquid vegetable oils. This s.h.i.+ft was made possible around 1900 by German and French chemists who developed the process of hydrogenation, hydrogenation, which hardens liquid oils by altering the structures of their fatty acids (p. 801). Hydrogenation allowed manufacturers to make a b.u.t.ter subst.i.tute that spreads easily even at refrigerator temperature, where b.u.t.ter is unusably hard. An unantic.i.p.ated bonus for the s.h.i.+ft to vegetable oils was the medical discovery after World War II that the saturated fats typical of meats and dairy products raise blood cholesterol levels and the risk of heart disease. The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fat in hard stick margarine is only 1 to 3, where in b.u.t.ter it is 2 to 1. Recently, however, scientists have found that which hardens liquid oils by altering the structures of their fatty acids (p. 801). Hydrogenation allowed manufacturers to make a b.u.t.ter subst.i.tute that spreads easily even at refrigerator temperature, where b.u.t.ter is unusably hard. An unantic.i.p.ated bonus for the s.h.i.+ft to vegetable oils was the medical discovery after World War II that the saturated fats typical of meats and dairy products raise blood cholesterol levels and the risk of heart disease. The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fat in hard stick margarine is only 1 to 3, where in b.u.t.ter it is 2 to 1. Recently, however, scientists have found that trans fatty acids trans fatty acids produced by hydrogenation actually raise blood cholesterol levels (see box). There are other methods for hardening vegetable oils that don't produce trans fatty acids, and manufacturers are already producing "trans free" margarines and shortenings. produced by hydrogenation actually raise blood cholesterol levels (see box). There are other methods for hardening vegetable oils that don't produce trans fatty acids, and manufacturers are already producing "trans free" margarines and shortenings.

Indian Clarified b.u.t.ter: Ghee GheeIn India, clarified b.u.t.ter is the most eminent of all foods. In addition to being used as an ingredient and frying oil, it is an emblem of purity, an ancient offering to the G.o.ds, the fuel of holy lamps and funeral pyres. Ghee (from the Sanskrit for "bright") was born of necessity. Ordinary b.u.t.ter spoils in only ten days in much of the country, while the clarified fat keeps six to eight months. Traditionally, ghee has been made from whole cow or buffalo milk that is soured by lactic acid bacteria into yogurt-like dahi, dahi, then churned to obtain b.u.t.ter. Today, industrial manufacturers usually start with cream. The preliminary souring improves both the quant.i.ty of b.u.t.ter obtained and its flavor; ghee made from sweet cream is said to taste flat. The b.u.t.ter is heated to 190F/90C to evaporate its water, then the temperature is raised to 250F/120C to brown the milk solids, which flavors the ghee and generates antioxidant compounds that delay the onset of rancidity. The brown residue is then filtered off (and mixed with sugar to make sweets), leaving the clear liquid ghee. then churned to obtain b.u.t.ter. Today, industrial manufacturers usually start with cream. The preliminary souring improves both the quant.i.ty of b.u.t.ter obtained and its flavor; ghee made from sweet cream is said to taste flat. The b.u.t.ter is heated to 190F/90C to evaporate its water, then the temperature is raised to 250F/120C to brown the milk solids, which flavors the ghee and generates antioxidant compounds that delay the onset of rancidity. The brown residue is then filtered off (and mixed with sugar to make sweets), leaving the clear liquid ghee.

Making Margarine The gross composition of margarine is the same as b.u.t.ter's: a minimum of 80% fat, a maximum of 16% water. The water phase is either fresh or cultured skim milk, or skim milk reconst.i.tuted from powder. Salt is added for flavor, to reduce spattering during frying, and as an antimicrobial agent. In the United States, the fat phase is blended from soybean, corn, cottonseed, sunflower, canola, and other oils. In Europe, lard and refined fish oils are also used. The emulsifier lecithin is added (0.2%) to stabilize the water droplets and reduce spattering in the frying pan; coloring agents, flavor extracts, and vitamins A and D are also incorporated. Nitrogen gas may be pumped in to make a whipped, softer spread. The gross composition of margarine is the same as b.u.t.ter's: a minimum of 80% fat, a maximum of 16% water. The water phase is either fresh or cultured skim milk, or skim milk reconst.i.tuted from powder. Salt is added for flavor, to reduce spattering during frying, and as an antimicrobial agent. In the United States, the fat phase is blended from soybean, corn, cottonseed, sunflower, canola, and other oils. In Europe, lard and refined fish oils are also used. The emulsifier lecithin is added (0.2%) to stabilize the water droplets and reduce spattering in the frying pan; coloring agents, flavor extracts, and vitamins A and D are also incorporated. Nitrogen gas may be pumped in to make a whipped, softer spread.

Kinds of Margarine and Related Spreads Stick Stick and and tub margarines tub margarines are the two most common kinds. They are formulated to approximate the spreadable consistency of b.u.t.ter at room temperature, and to melt in the mouth. Stick margarine is only slightly softer than b.u.t.ter in the refrigerator, and like b.u.t.ter can be creamed with sugar to make icings. Tub margarine is substantially less saturated and easily spreadable even at 40F/5C, but too soft to cream or to use in layered pastries. are the two most common kinds. They are formulated to approximate the spreadable consistency of b.u.t.ter at room temperature, and to melt in the mouth. Stick margarine is only slightly softer than b.u.t.ter in the refrigerator, and like b.u.t.ter can be creamed with sugar to make icings. Tub margarine is substantially less saturated and easily spreadable even at 40F/5C, but too soft to cream or to use in layered pastries.

Reduced-fat spreads contain less oil and more water than standard margarines, rely on carbohydrate and protein stabilizers, and aren't suited to cooking. The stabilizers can scorch in the frying pan. If used to replace b.u.t.ter or margarine in baking, high-moisture spreads throw liquid-solid proportions badly out of balance. Very-low-fat and no-fat spreads contain so much starch, gum, and/or protein that there's nothing there to melt when heated: they dry out and eventually burn. contain less oil and more water than standard margarines, rely on carbohydrate and protein stabilizers, and aren't suited to cooking. The stabilizers can scorch in the frying pan. If used to replace b.u.t.ter or margarine in baking, high-moisture spreads throw liquid-solid proportions badly out of balance. Very-low-fat and no-fat spreads contain so much starch, gum, and/or protein that there's nothing there to melt when heated: they dry out and eventually burn.

Specialty margarines are generally available only to professional bakers. Like the original French oleomargarine, they sometimes contain beef tallow. They're formulated to have a firm but spreadable consistency over a much broader temperature range than b.u.t.ter (p. 562). are generally available only to professional bakers. Like the original French oleomargarine, they sometimes contain beef tallow. They're formulated to have a firm but spreadable consistency over a much broader temperature range than b.u.t.ter (p. 562).

Hydrogenation By-Products: Trans Fatty AcidsTrans fatty acids are unsaturated fatty acids that nevertheless behave more like saturated fatty acids (p. 801). They're formed in the hydrogenation process, and are the reason that margarines can be as solid as b.u.t.ter and yet contain half the saturated fat; the trans unsaturated fats contribute a great deal to margarine firmness. Trans unsaturated fats are also less p.r.o.ne to oxidation or heat damage and make cooking oils more stable.Trans fatty acids have come under scrutiny due to the likelihood that they may contribute to human heart disease. Research has shown that they not only raise undesirable LDL cholesterol levels in the blood as saturated fats do, they also lower desirable HDL levels. Manufacturers are now modifying their processing methods to lower trans fatty acids levels in U.S. margarines and cooking oils from the present levels, which reach 2050% of total fatty acids in hard margarines (less in softer products).Margarine manufacturers are not the only producers of trans fatty acids: the microbes in animal rumens are too! Thanks to their activity, the fat in milk, b.u.t.ter, and cheese averages 5% trans fatty acids, and the meat fat of ruminant animals - beef and lamb - ranges from 1 to 5%.

Ice Cream Ice cream is a dish that manages to heighten the already remarkable qualities of cream. By freezing it, we make it possible to taste the birth of creaminess, the tantalizing transition from solidity to fluidity. But it was no simple matter to freeze cream in a way that does it justice.

The Invention and Evolution of Ice Cream Plain frozen cream is hard as a rock. Sugar makes it softer, but also lowers its freezing point (the dissolved sugar molecules get in the way as the water molecules settle into ordered crystals). So sweetened cream freezes well below the freezing point of pure water, and can't freeze in the slush that forms when a warm object is placed in snow or ice. What made ice cream possible was a sprinkling of chemical ingenuity. If salts are added to the ice, the salts dissolve in the slush, lower Plain frozen cream is hard as a rock. Sugar makes it softer, but also lowers its freezing point (the dissolved sugar molecules get in the way as the water molecules settle into ordered crystals). So sweetened cream freezes well below the freezing point of pure water, and can't freeze in the slush that forms when a warm object is placed in snow or ice. What made ice cream possible was a sprinkling of chemical ingenuity. If salts are added to the ice, the salts dissolve in the slush, lower its its freezing point, and allow it to get cold enough to freeze the sugared cream. freezing point, and allow it to get cold enough to freeze the sugared cream.

The effect of salts on freezing was known in the 13th century Arab world, and that knowledge eventually made its way to Italy, where ices made from fruit were described in the early 17th century. The English term "ice cream" first appears in a 1672 doc.u.ment from the court of Charles II, and the first printed recipes for frozen waters and creams appear in France and Naples in the 1680s and 1690s. By the time of the American Revolution, the French had discovered that frequent stirring of the freezing mix gave a finer, less crystalline texture. They had also developed super-rich versions with 20 egg yolks per pint of cream (glace au beurre, "ice b.u.t.ter"!), and ice creams flavored with various nuts and spices, orange blossoms, caramel, chocolate, tea, coffee, and even rye bread. "ice b.u.t.ter"!), and ice creams flavored with various nuts and spices, orange blossoms, caramel, chocolate, tea, coffee, and even rye bread.

The First Recipes for Ice CreamNeige de fleurs d'orange ("Snow of Orange Flowers") ("Snow of Orange Flowers")You must take sweet cream, and put thereto two handfuls of powdered sugar, and take petals of orange flowers and mince them small, and put them in your cream...and put all into a pot, and put your pot in a wine cooler; and you must take ice, crush it well and put a bed of it with a handful of salt at the bottom of the cooler before putting in the pot.... And you must continue putting a layer of ice and a handful of salt, until the cooler is full and the pot covered, and you must put it in the coolest place you can find, and you must shake it from time to time for fear it will freeze into a solid lump of ice. It will take about two hours.- Nouveau confiturier, Nouveau confiturier, 1682 1682Fromage a l'angloise (English Cheese) (English Cheese)Take a chopine chopine [16 oz] of sweet cream and the same of milk, half a pound of powdered sugar, stir in three egg yolks and boil until it becomes like a thin porridge; take it from the fire and pour it into your ice mould, and put it in the ice for three hours; and when it is firm, withdraw the mold, and warm it a little, in order more easily to turn out your cheese, or else dip your mould for a moment in hot water, then serve it in a compotier. [16 oz] of sweet cream and the same of milk, half a pound of powdered sugar, stir in three egg yolks and boil until it becomes like a thin porridge; take it from the fire and pour it into your ice mould, and put it in the ice for three hours; and when it is firm, withdraw the mold, and warm it a little, in order more easily to turn out your cheese, or else dip your mould for a moment in hot water, then serve it in a compotier.- Francois Ma.s.sialot, La Nouvelle instruction pour les confitures La Nouvelle instruction pour les confitures (1692) (1692) In America, a Food for the Ma.s.ses America transformed this delicacy into a food for the ma.s.ses. Ice cream making was an awkward, small-batch procedure until 1843, when a Nancy Johnson of Philadelphia patented a freezer consisting of a large bucket for the brine and a sealed cylinder containing the ice-cream mix and a mixing blade, whose shaft protruded from the top and could be cranked continuously. Five years later, William G. Young of Baltimore modified Johnson's design to make the mix container rotate in the brine for more efficient cooling. The Johnson-Young freezer allowed large quant.i.ties of fine-textured ice cream to be made with a simple, steady mechanical action. America transformed this delicacy into a food for the ma.s.ses. Ice cream making was an awkward, small-batch procedure until 1843, when a Nancy Johnson of Philadelphia patented a freezer consisting of a large bucket for the brine and a sealed cylinder containing the ice-cream mix and a mixing blade, whose shaft protruded from the top and could be cranked continuously. Five years later, William G. Young of Baltimore modified Johnson's design to make the mix container rotate in the brine for more efficient cooling. The Johnson-Young freezer allowed large quant.i.ties of fine-textured ice cream to be made with a simple, steady mechanical action.

The second fateful advance toward ma.s.s production came in the early 1850s, when a Baltimore milk dealer by the name of Jacob Fussell decided to use his seasonal surplus of cream to make ice cream, was able to charge half the going price in specialty shops, and enjoyed great success as the first large-scale manufacturer. His example caught on, so that by 1900 an English visitor was struck by the "enormous quant.i.ties" of ice cream eaten in America. Today Americans still eat substantially more ice cream than Europeans do, nearly 20 quarts/liters per person every year.

The Industrialization of Ice Cream Once ice cream became an industrial product, industry redefined it. Manufacturers could freeze their ice cream faster and colder than the handmade version, and so could produce very fine ice crystals. Smoothness of texture became the hallmark of industrial ice cream, and manufacturers accentuated it by replacing traditional ingredients with gelatin and concentrated milk solids. After World War II, they dosed ice cream with greater amounts of stabilizers to preserve its smoothness in the new and unpredictable home freezers. And price compet.i.tion led to the increasing use of additives, powdered milk from surplus production, and artificial flavors and colors. So an ice cream hierarchy developed. At the top is traditional but relatively expensive ice cream; at the bottom, a lower-quality but more stable and affordable version. Once ice cream became an industrial product, industry redefined it. Manufacturers could freeze their ice cream faster and colder than the handmade version, and so could produce very fine ice crystals. Smoothness of texture became the hallmark of industrial ice cream, and manufacturers accentuated it by replacing traditional ingredients with gelatin and concentrated milk solids. After World War II, they dosed ice cream with greater amounts of stabilizers to preserve its smoothness in the new and unpredictable home freezers. And price compet.i.tion led to the increasing use of additives, powdered milk from surplus production, and artificial flavors and colors. So an ice cream hierarchy developed. At the top is traditional but relatively expensive ice cream; at the bottom, a lower-quality but more stable and affordable version.

The Structure and Consistency of Ice Cream Ice Crystals, Concentrated Cream, Air Ice cream consists of three basic elements: ice crystals made of pure water, the concentrated cream that the crystals leave behind as they form from the prepared mix, and tiny air cells formed as the mix is churned during the freezing. Ice cream consists of three basic elements: ice crystals made of pure water, the concentrated cream that the crystals leave behind as they form from the prepared mix, and tiny air cells formed as the mix is churned during the freezing.

The ice crystals form from water molecules as the mix freezes, and give ice cream its solidity; they're its backbone. And their size determines whether it is fine and smooth or coa.r.s.e and grainy. But they account for only a fraction of its volume.

The concentrated cream is what is left of the mix when the ice crystals form. Thanks to all the dissolved sugar, about a fifth of the water in the mix remains unfrozen even at 0F/18C. The result is a very thick fluid that's about equal portions of liquid water, milk fat, milk proteins, and sugar. This fluid coats each of the many millions of ice crystals, and sticks them together - but not too strongly.

Air cells are trapped in the ice cream mix when it's agitated during the freezing. They interrupt and weaken the matrix of ice crystals and cream, making that matrix lighter and easier to scoop and bite into. The air cells inflate the volume of the ice cream over the volume of the original mix. The increase is called overrun, overrun, and in a fluffy ice cream can be as much as 100%: that is, the final ice cream volume is half mix and half air. The lower the overrun, the denser the ice cream. and in a fluffy ice cream can be as much as 100%: that is, the final ice cream volume is half mix and half air. The lower the overrun, the denser the ice cream.

Balance The key to making a good ice cream is to formulate a mix that will freeze into a balanced structure of ice crystals, concentrated cream, and air. The consistency of a balanced, well made ice cream is creamy, smooth, firm, almost chewy. The smaller the proportion of water in the mix, the easier it is to make small crystals and a smooth texture. However, too much sugar and milk solids gives a heavy, soggy, syrupy result, and too much fat can end up churning into b.u.t.ter. Most good ice cream recipes produce a mix with a water content around 60%, a sugar content around 15%, and a milk-fat content between 10% - the minimum for commercial U.S. ice cream - and 20%. The key to making a good ice cream is to formulate a mix that will freeze into a balanced structure of ice crystals, concentrated cream, and air. The consistency of a balanced, well made ice cream is creamy, smooth, firm, almost chewy. The smaller the proportion of water in the mix, the easier it is to make small crystals and a smooth texture. However, too much sugar and milk solids gives a heavy, soggy, syrupy result, and too much fat can end up churning into b.u.t.ter. Most good ice cream recipes produce a mix with a water content around 60%, a sugar content around 15%, and a milk-fat content between 10% - the minimum for commercial U.S. ice cream - and 20%.

Styles of Ice Cream Flavorings apart, there are two major styles of ice cream, and several minor ones. Flavorings apart, there are two major styles of ice cream, and several minor ones.

Standard or or Philadelphia-style Philadelphia-style ice cream is made from cream and milk, sugar, and a few other minor ingredients. Its appeal is the richness and delicate flavor of cream itself, complemented by vanilla or by fruits or nuts. ice cream is made from cream and milk, sugar, and a few other minor ingredients. Its appeal is the richness and delicate flavor of cream itself, complemented by vanilla or by fruits or nuts.

French or or custard custard ice cream contains an additional ingredient: egg yolks, as many as 12 per quart/liter. The proteins and emulsifiers in egg yolk can help keep ice crystals small and the texture smooth even at relatively low milk-fat and high water levels; some traditional French ice cream mixes are a ice cream contains an additional ingredient: egg yolks, as many as 12 per quart/liter. The proteins and emulsifiers in egg yolk can help keep ice crystals small and the texture smooth even at relatively low milk-fat and high water levels; some traditional French ice cream mixes are a creme anglaise creme anglaise (p. 98) made with milk, not cream. A mix that contains yolks must be cooked to disperse the proteins and emulsifiers (and kill any bacteria in the raw yolks), and the resulting thickened, custard-like mix makes an ice cream with a characteristic cooked, eggy flavor. (p. 98) made with milk, not cream. A mix that contains yolks must be cooked to disperse the proteins and emulsifiers (and kill any bacteria in the raw yolks), and the resulting thickened, custard-like mix makes an ice cream with a characteristic cooked, eggy flavor.

A distinct style of custard ice cream is the Italian gelato, gelato, which is typically high in b.u.t.terfat as well as egg yolks, and frozen with little overrun into a very rich, dense cream. (The name simply means "frozen," and in Italy is applied to a range of frozen preparations.) which is typically high in b.u.t.terfat as well as egg yolks, and frozen with little overrun into a very rich, dense cream. (The name simply means "frozen," and in Italy is applied to a range of frozen preparations.) Reduced-fat, low-fat, and nonfat ice creams contain progressively less fat than the 10% minimum specified in the commercial American definition of ice cream. They keep their ice crystals small with a variety of additives, including corn syrup, powdered milk, and vegetable gums. "Soft-serve" ice cream is a reduced-fat preparation whose softness comes from being dispensed at a relatively high temperature (2022F/6C). contain progressively less fat than the 10% minimum specified in the commercial American definition of ice cream. They keep their ice crystals small with a variety of additives, including corn syrup, powdered milk, and vegetable gums. "Soft-serve" ice cream is a reduced-fat preparation whose softness comes from being dispensed at a relatively high temperature (2022F/6C).

Kulfi, the Indian version of ice cream that may go back to the 16th century, is made without stirring from milk boiled down to a fraction of its original volume, and therefore concentrated in texture-smoothing milk proteins and sugar. It has a strong cooked-milk, b.u.t.terscotch flavor. the Indian version of ice cream that may go back to the 16th century, is made without stirring from milk boiled down to a fraction of its original volume, and therefore concentrated in texture-smoothing milk proteins and sugar. It has a strong cooked-milk, b.u.t.terscotch flavor.

Generally, premium-quality ice creams are made with more cream and egg yolks than less expensive types. They also contain less air. Hefting cartons is a quick way to estimate value; there can be as much cream and sugar in an expensive pint as there is in a cheap quart, which may be up to half empty s.p.a.ce.

Ice cream, a semisolid foam. The process of freezing the ice-cream mix forms ice crystals - solid ma.s.ses of pure water - and concentrates the remaining mix into a liquid rich in sugar and milk proteins. Churning fills the mix with air bubbles, which are stabilized by layers of cl.u.s.tered fat globules.

The Typical Compositions of Ice Creams With the exception of overrun and calories, the percentages shown are the percentages by weight of the ice cream