The Origins Of Political Order Part 22

30.See Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: Norton, 1997), pp. 21012. (New York: Norton, 1997), pp. 21012.

31.Kamen, Spain's Road to Empire Spain's Road to Empire, p. 273. For a detailed description of the conflict between indigenous landowners and ladino settlers in Central America, and the Spanish government's attempts to protect the former, see David Browning, El Salvador: Landscape and Society El Salvador: Landscape and Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 78125. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 78125.

32.Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 169.

33.Ibid., p. 170.

34.Ibid., p. 175.

35.It also convinced the philosopher Georg F. W. Hegel that the historical process had come to an end.

36.See Hans Rosenberg, Bureaucracy, Aristocracy, and Autocracy: The Prussian Experience, 16601815 Bureaucracy, Aristocracy, and Autocracy: The Prussian Experience, 16601815 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958); and Hans-Eberhard Mueller, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958); and Hans-Eberhard Mueller, Bureaucracy, Education, and Monopoly: Civil Service Reforms in Prussia and England Bureaucracy, Education, and Monopoly: Civil Service Reforms in Prussia and England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).

25: EAST OF THE ELBE.

1.Jerome Blum, "The Rise of Serfdom in Eastern Europe," American Historical Review American Historical Review 62 (1957). 62 (1957).

2.Jerome Blum, The European Peasantry from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century The European Peasantry from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Service Center for Teachers of History, 1960), pp. 1213. (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Service Center for Teachers of History, 1960), pp. 1213.

3.Ibid., pp. 1516.

4.Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the Revolution The Old Regime and the Revolution, book II, chaps. 8, 12.

5.Richard h.e.l.lie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 7792. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 7792.

6.Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia Lord and Peasant in Russia, p. 370.

7.Pirenne, Medieval Cities Medieval Cities, pp. 77105.

8.See Max Weber, The City The City (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1958). (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1958).

9.Szucs, "Three Historical Regions of Europe," in Keane, ed., pp. 310, 313.

10.See Laszlo Makkai, "The Hungarians' Prehistory, Their Conquest of Hungary and Their Raids to the West to 955," and "The Foundation of the Hungarian Christian State, 9501196," in Peter F. Sugar, ed., A History of Hungary A History of Hungary (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990). (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990).

11.Laszlo Makkai, "Transformation into a Western-type State, 11961301," in Sugar, A History of Hungary A History of Hungary; Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, p. 271.

12.Denis Sinor, History of Hungary History of Hungary (New York: Praeger, 1959), pp. 6263. (New York: Praeger, 1959), pp. 6263.

13.Janos M. Bak, "Politics, Society and Defense in Medieval and Early Modern Hungary," in Bak and Bela K. Kiraly, eds., From Hunyadi to Rakoczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary From Hunyadi to Rakoczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary (Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn College Program on Society and Change, 1982). (Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn College Program on Society and Change, 1982).

14.Unlike the Russian state, where power rested on a firm alliance between the king and the lower gentry, the Hungarian king found himself opposed by this cla.s.s, as well as by the barons and the church. And unlike the English king, he had no powerful court or incipient royal bureaucracy on which to base his power. Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, pp. 27273; Makkai, "Transformation to a Western-type State," pp. 2425.

15.Sinor, History of Hungary History of Hungary, pp. 7071.

16.Thomas Ertman argues that Hungary faced no serious geopolitical pressure until the rise of the Ottomans in the fifteenth century, but it is not certain that this was the case in light of the wars fought by Louis and later kings. Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, pp. 27376.

17.Pal Engel, "The Age of the Angevins, 13011382," in Sugar, A History of Hungary A History of Hungary, pp. 4344.

18.C. A. Macartney, Hungary: A Short History Hungary: A Short History (Chicago: Aldine, 1962), pp. 4647. (Chicago: Aldine, 1962), pp. 4647.

19.Janos Bak, "The Late Medieval Period, 13821526," in Sugar, A History of Hungary A History of Hungary, pp. 5455.

20.On the inst.i.tutionalization of the Hungarian Diet, see Gyorgy Bonis, "The Hungarian Federal Diet (13th18th Centuries)," Recueils de la societe Jean Bodin Recueils de la societe Jean Bodin 25 (1965): 28396. 25 (1965): 28396.

21.Martyn Rady, n.o.bility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary n.o.bility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 159. (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 159.

22.Pal Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 8951526 The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 8951526 (London: I. B. Tauris Publishers, 2001), p. 278. (London: I. B. Tauris Publishers, 2001), p. 278.

23.Bak, "The Late Medieval Period," p. 65.

24.On the rise of Hunyadi, see Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen The Realm of St. Stephen, pp. 288305.

25.Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, p. 288.

26.Bak, "The Late Medieval Period," pp. 7174.

27.Makkai, "Transformation to a Western-type State," pp. 3233.

28.Blum, "The Rise of Serfdom."

29.Bak, "The Late Medieval Period," pp. 7879.

30.McNeill, Europe's Steppe Frontier Europe's Steppe Frontier, p. 34.

26: TOWARD A MORE PERFECT ABSOLUTISM.

1.See Andreas Schedler, Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Compet.i.tion Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Compet.i.tion (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006). (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006).

2.These rankings come from the 2008 Corruption Perception Index, http://transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi.

3.Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 79. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 79.

4.Marquis de Custine, La Russie en 1839 La Russie en 1839 (Paris: Amyot, 1843). (Paris: Amyot, 1843).

5.In Mongolia itself, Genghis Khan is today revered as a national hero. But even in Russia there has been a search for the nation's authentic roots that has cast the Mongol period in a better light. See, for example, Jack Weatherford, Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World (New York: Crown, 2004). (New York: Crown, 2004).

6.For a summary judgment, see Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 7883.

7.Ibid., p. 116; Sergei Fedorovich Platonov, History of Russia History of Russia (Bloomington: University of Indiana Prints and Reprints, 1964), pp. 10124. (Bloomington: University of Indiana Prints and Reprints, 1964), pp. 10124.

8.See h.e.l.lie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy, chap. 2; John P. LeDonne, Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s: The Formation of the Russian Political Order 17001825 Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s: The Formation of the Russian Political Order 17001825 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 6; Blum, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 6; Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia Lord and Peasant in Russia, pp. 17071.

9.As usual, many Soviet historians used a very broad economic definition of feudalism and argued that it existed from Kievan times up to the late nineteenth century. Using a Blochian definition of feudalism, it is clear that there were similarities but also definite differences, and that "Russian social forms often appear to be rudimentary, or at least simpler and cruder, versions of Western models." Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 12728.

10.Ibid., p. 164.

11.Ibid., p. 257.

12.Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia Lord and Peasant in Russia, pp. 14446.

13.Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 16470. According to the English traveler Giles Fletcher, who visited Moscow after Ivan's death, this "pollicy and tyrannous practice (though now it be ceased) hath so troubled that countrey, and filled it so full of grudge and mortall hatred ever since, that it will not be quenched (as it seemeth now) till it burne againe into a civill flame." Quoted in Sergei Fedorovich Platonov, The Time of Troubles: A Historical Study of the Internal Crises and Social Struggle in 16th- and 17th-Century Muscovy The Time of Troubles: A Historical Study of the Internal Crises and Social Struggle in 16th- and 17th-Century Muscovy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1970), p. 25. (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1970), p. 25.

14.This connection was made by Sergei Eisenstein in his movie Ivan the Terrible Ivan the Terrible, and by Stalin himself. I am grateful to Donna Orwin for making this point.

15.Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 8893; Platonov, History of Russia History of Russia, pp. 6263.

16.Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 20910.

17.Platonov, History of Russia History of Russia, pp. 100101.

18.Ibid., p. 132.

19.LeDonne, Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s, p. 64.

20.Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 21213.

21."A survey of several provinces in 1822 reveals that the internal structure of the army had been transplanted into the provincial administration, with marshals, judges, captains, and sheriffs representing the 'line' (stroi), the civilian treasurers and accountants, the noncombatants (nestroevoi)." LeDonne, Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s, p. 19.

22.Blum, The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe, pp. 202203.

23.Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 205206.

24.Blum, The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe, pp. 24768.

25.LeDonne, Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s, p. 6.

26.Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 25658.

27.Blum, The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe, p. 203.

28.LeDonne, Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s, p. 20.

27: TAXATION AND REPRESENTATION.

1.See MacFarlane, The Origins of English Individualism The Origins of English Individualism; Warren, The Governance of Norman and Angevin England The Governance of Norman and Angevin England, pp. 19; Richard Hodges, The Anglo-Saxon Achievement: Archaeology and the Beginnings of English Society The Anglo-Saxon Achievement: Archaeology and the Beginnings of English Society (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 186202. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 186202.

2.I am grateful to Jrgen Mller for pointing this out.

3.Frederic W. Maitland, The Const.i.tutional History of England The Const.i.tutional History of England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), p. 40. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), p. 40.

4.Ibid., p. 42.

5.Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, p. 43.

6.Maitland, The Const.i.tutional History of England The Const.i.tutional History of England, p. 43.

7.Ibid., p. 46.

8.Ibid., pp. 4950.

9.Yoram Barzel posits a different origin of English property rights. He suggests that the English monarch started out as an absolute dictator who came to understand over time that he could maximize his own revenues if he established the state's credibility through an independent third-party enforcer. This is an example of rational-choice economists projecting modern a.s.sumptions about behavior backward in time in total disregard of actual historical facts. Yoram Barzel, "Property Rights and the Evolution of the State," Economics of Governance Economics of Governance 1 (2000): 2551. 1 (2000): 2551.

10.Sacks, "The Paradox of Taxation," in Hoffman and Norberg, eds., p. 16.

11.Maitland, The Const.i.tutional History of England The Const.i.tutional History of England, pp. 26263.

12.Ibid., p. 269.

13.See, for example, Christopher Hill, Puritanism and Revolution: Studies in Interpretation of the English Revolution of the Seventeenth Century Puritanism and Revolution: Studies in Interpretation of the English Revolution of the Seventeenth Century (New York: Schocken, 1958); Lawrence Stone, (New York: Schocken, 1958); Lawrence Stone, The Causes of the English Revolution, 15291642 The Causes of the English Revolution, 15291642 (New York: Harper, 1972). (New York: Harper, 1972).

14.G. E. Aylmer, Rebellion or Revolution? England, 16401660 Rebellion or Revolution? England, 16401660 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), pp. 2832. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), pp. 2832.

15.Weber, The City The City; Pirenne, Medieval Cities. Medieval Cities.

16.In the Communist Manifesto Communist Manifesto, Marx says, "Each step in the development of the bourgeoisie was accompanied by a corresponding political advance of that cla.s.s. An oppressed cla.s.s under the sway of the feudal n.o.bility, an armed and self-governing a.s.sociation in the mediaeval commune; here independent urban republic (as in Italy and Germany), there taxable 'third estate' of the monarchy (as in France), afterwards, in the period of manufacture proper, serving either the semi-feudal or the absolute monarchy as a counterpoise against the n.o.bility, and, in fact, corner-stone of the great monarchies in general, the bourgeoisie has at last, since the establishment of Modern Industry and of the world-market, conquered for itself, in the modern representative State, exclusive political sway. The executive of the modern State is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie." Political power is thus for him the consequence and not the cause of this cla.s.s's economic power.

17.Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Indianapolis: Liberty Cla.s.sics, 1981), book III, chap. 1. (Indianapolis: Liberty Cla.s.sics, 1981), book III, chap. 1.

18.Ibid., part III, chap. 2.

19.Ibid., part III, chap. 3.

20.Ibid., part III, chap. 5.

21.Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, pp. 17677.

22.Aylmer, Rebellion or Revolution? Rebellion or Revolution?, pp. 56.

23.Joel Hurstfield, Freedom, Corruption and Government in Elizabethan England Freedom, Corruption and Government in Elizabethan England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), pp. 13762. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), pp. 13762.

24.Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, p. 184.

25.As in all wars, the back-and-forth fortunes of the two sides was subject to considerable contingency, based on individual acts of heroism, misjudgment, cowardice, or incompetence. The war invites comparison to the Fronde uprising that took place in France more or less contemporaneously, which similarly pitted supporters of the French parlementaires against the forces of Louis XIV. The French monarchy won its struggle while the English one lost; given the role of chance in determining military outcomes, it is easy to imagine the results having been reversed. Would the French state then have gone on to adopt parliamentary government, while the English monarchy consolidated an absolutist state?

Although it is useful to be reminded of the contingency of events that seem inevitable in hindsight, there are nonetheless a number of reasons for thinking that even a parliamentary defeat in the Civil War would not have spelled the end of representative government in England. The parliamentary side in the Civil War was far more cohesive and represented a much broader section of English society than the Frondeurs. Indeed, the Fronde itself was divided into two phases, a Fronde of the parlementaires and the Fronde of the n.o.bles, who from the beginning failed to work together effectively. The French parlementaires were squabbling individuals seeking to protect their families' privileges and had none of the corporate consciousness or internal discipline of the English parliamentarians. Moreover, the parliamentary side was in effect finally defeated after Oliver Cromwell's death and the collapse of the Protectorate in 1660, yet the restored monarchy lasted only another eighteen years until it was in turn overthrown in the Glorious Revolution. This suggests that the evolution of English political inst.i.tutions was not simply subject to the chance fortunes of war.

26.G. E. Aylmer, The Crown's Servants: Government and Civil Service Under Charles II, 16601685 The Crown's Servants: Government and Civil Service Under Charles II, 16601685 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 21319. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 21319.

27.Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, pp. 19697.

28.Huntington, The Third Wave The Third Wave, p. 65.

29.The religious dimensions of the crisis were very complex. The fundamental divide in England in this period was not between Protestants and Catholics but between High Church Anglicans-represented before the Civil War by Archbishop Laud-and dissenting Protestants including the Congregationalists and Quakers. The former were often suspected by the latter of being sympathetic to Catholic practices and interests; the Dissenters' rights were restricted after the Restoration. The balance between the two groups was altered with the accession of the Calvinist William, weakening the High Churchmen and strengthening the position of the Dissenters. One of William's motives for seeking the English throne was to end any possibility of an English-French alliance against the Netherlands.

30.See John Miller, The Glorious Revolution The Glorious Revolution, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1997); Eveline Cruickshanks, The Glorious Revolution The Glorious Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000). (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000).

31.Locke was living in exile in the Netherlands after 1683 and returned to England with William of Orange's wife in 1689. The two Treatises Treatises were published in late 1689, though they may have been written considerably earlier. were published in late 1689, though they may have been written considerably earlier.